EN302 International skills




 


 

   14th June 2004 15.53

Team members • Report and PowerPoint: – Benoît LAURENT, I3T. – Sylvie SOUDARISSANANE, I3T. • Internet: – Bruno IGLESIAS, I3T. – Joseph MAHAUT, I3T-IFC. – Alain PEZDIR, I3T. • Oral: – Ronald JOHN ANTON CHRISOSTOM, I3T. – Patrick LAZZARONI, I3T. – Jean-Sébastien NATCHIA-KOUAO, I3T-IFC. – Nirmal PREGASSAME, I3S. – Sylvie SOUDARISSANANE, I3T. • Book readers: – Romain LOUVET, I3T. – Ronald JOHN ANTON CHRISOSTOM, I3T. – Nirmal PREGASSAME, I3S. – Patrick WACHEUX I3T-IFC. • Meetings: – Patrick LAZZARONI, I3T. – Jean-Sébastien NATCHIA-KOUAO, I3T-IFC.

Contents I Report, Tibetan and Tibet

1

Introduction

3

1 Geography and Economy 1.1 Where is Tibet? . . . . . 1.2 Climate . . . . . . . . . 1.3 Plants and Animals . . . 1.4 Tibet in numbers . . . . 1.5 Economy . . . . . . . . 1.6 Tibet: a strategic position

. . . . . .

5 5 6 6 7 8 8

. . . . . . .

9 9 9 10 10 10 10 12

. . . . . . . . . . . .

15 15 15 16 23 24 24 24 26 26 27 27 29

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

2 Tibet: Before-After 2.1 How was Tibet before Chinese invasion . . . . . . . . . . . 2.1.1 The Tibetan population . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.1.2 The Tibetan religion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.1.3 Language . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2 1959 the great change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2.1 Chinese repression: the religious aspect . . . . . . . 2.2.2 Chinese domination and economics transformations 3 Traditions 3.1 Art . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.1.1 Introduction to tibetan art . 3.1.2 Different sorts of art . . . 3.1.3 Sculpture - painting . . . . 3.1.4 Statuary & Sculpture . . . 3.1.5 Handicrafts . . . . . . . . 3.1.6 Achitecture . . . . . . . . 3.2 Tibetan cooking - the restaurant . 3.2.1 Food . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2.2 Tibetan tea . . . . . . . . 3.3 Education - Religion . . . . . . . 3.4 Dress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . .

6

CONTENTS 3.5

Customs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.5.1 Traditional culture . . . . . . . . 3.5.2 Marriage . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.5.3 Death . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.6 Music - Theatre - Drama . . . . . . . . . 3.6.1 Music . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.6.2 Dance & Drama . . . . . . . . . 3.7 Medicine - Description of the Nyipa sum . 3.8 Games - Sports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.9 Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.10 Literature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . .

4 Testimony 4.1 Non Tibetan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.1.1 Tibet is dying out . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2 Tibetan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2.1 Why I had to leave Tibet when I was ten years old, by Tsering Dolkar 4.2.2 The school of tears, by Takho . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . .

30 30 31 31 32 32 33 33 34 35 35

. . . . .

37 37 37 39 39 41

Conclusion

43

II Annexes, Additionnal documents and photography

47

A Interview: Thupten Gyatso

49

B Recipes B.1 Main Dishes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B.1.1 Beef Momos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B.1.2 Lamb Momos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B.1.3 Shamday - Tibetan Curry . . . . . . . . B.1.4 Tibetan Noodle Stew . . . . . . . . . . . B.1.5 Then Thuk - Noodle Soup . . . . . . . . B.1.6 Sherpa Momos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B.2 Deserts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B.2.1 Cream Cheese Barfi (Sweetened Cream Cheese Cake) . . . . B.2.2 Sikarni (Spiced Sweet Yogurt-Pistachio Dessert) B.2.3 Rasbari Dessert (Cheese Balls in Cream Syrup) . . . . . . B.2.4 Khir (Himalayan Rice Pudding) . . . . . . . .

55 55 55 56 58 58 59 60 61

. . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63

CONTENTS

B.2.5

7

Carrot Barfi (Carrot Fudge Dessert) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64

C Photography 65 C.1 Landscape . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65 D Additionnal cultural information D.1 Tibetan alphabet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D.2 Tibetan flag . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D.2.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D.3 An Explanation of the Symbolism of the National Flag of Tibet

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

67 68 69 69 70

List of Figures 1.1 1.2 1.3

Geographical position of Tibet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Tibetan landscape . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Position of Tibet in Asia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

3.1

A representation of Avalokiteshvara, we can see the King Srong Tsen Gampo in the middle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Some examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Textiles : Miscellaneous - Dance Apron, Tibet 1700-1799 . . . . . . . . . . . The painted mandala . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The sand mandala . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The three dimensional mandala . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The "Wheel of time" is doubtless the Tibetan mandala the most known. . . . . . Example of thangka. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Tibetan institute of art . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Example of monastery architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Interior of a tibetan monastery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Villager in traditionnal tibetan costume . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Buddha Vaiduryaprabha . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 3.8 3.9 3.10 3.11 3.12 3.13

. . . . . . . . . . . . .

6 7 8 16 17 18 18 19 19 21 22 23 26 28 30 34

C.1 Shishapangma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65 C.2 Mountain with prayer flags . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66 C.3 The prayer flags wave in the wind and make prayers as they move . . . . . . . . 66 D.1 Tibetan alphabet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68 D.2 Tibetan flag . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69

Part I Report, Tibetan and Tibet

Introduction The purpose of this document is to present the mysterious and fascinating universe of Tibet. If like us before, you only have about this world the image of peace and harmony which diffuses through space and time up to shine forth over the entire world, it will help you to discover some jewels of this wonderful treasure of culture and tradition. This presentation focuses on the cultural aspect of Tibet; however, for the reader to understand all its subtleties we need to give an overview of the geographical and political situation of the country. Thus, we will first introduce you to the geographical aspect of Tibet which is a key element to understand certain characteristics of this civilisation. Then a brief explanation of the historical context will be developed. This will lead us to the main purpose of this report; you will discover the richness of the culture and the mystery of the traditions hidden under THE ROOF OF THE WORLD.

Chapter 1 Geography and Economy 1.1 Where is Tibet? Tibet, commonly known as the Roof of the world, is located in the heart of Asia. Tibet stretches 2,500 kilometres from east to west, 1,500 kilometres from north to south and is at an average height of 3,650 metres above sea level. Tibet is a compromised of the three provinces of Amdo1 , Kham2 , and U-Tsang3 . The southern part of Tibet falls wholly within the Himalaya. Many of the world’s highest summits are located in the main Himalayan chain, extending along the entire southern frontier. Among the principal peaks are Mount Everest (8,848 m), the world’s loftiest mountain; Namzha Parwa (7,756 m); and Gurla Mandhata (7,728 m). Another Himalayan chain, commonly known as the Trans-Himalaya, lies in parallel to the main chain on the north, and has peaks up to about 7,300 m. Between this chain and the main chain is a river valley region, which extends about 1,000 km from east to west. The Brahmaputra River4 flows from west to east through most of this region. The Trans-Himalaya chain slopes north to the Northern (or Tibetan) Plateau. This is a vast tableland extending to the Karakorum on the west and the Kunlun Mountains on the north. The Northern Plateau is broken by mountain outcroppings and has an average elevation of about 4,570 m . It slopes gradually to the south and east. The eastern part of Tibet is a rugged region of numerous north-south trending mountain ranges, interspersed with deep valleys.

1

split by China into the provinces of Qinghai and part of Gansu largely incorporated into the chinese provinces od Sichuan, Gansu, and Yunnan 3 which is with the western Kham the Tibet Autonomous Region TAR 4 known in Tibet as the Yarlung Zangbo. 2

6

Geography and Economy

Figure 1.1: Geographical position of Tibet

1.2 Climate Tibet has a semi-arid climate. The average annual precipitation is only about 381 mm ) and is considerably less in many areas. The south-east has the heaviest precipitation. Temperatures in the mountains and plateaux are generally cold, and strong winds are a common year-round feature. The most equable climates are found in the river valleys. The average annual temperature is about 1.1ˇr C; sudden drops in temperature after sunset are characteristic.

1.3 Plants and Animals Vegetation on the Northern Plateau is extremely sparse, consisting for the most part of grasses and shrubs. Scattered wooded areas occur in the extreme west and east. In the main, however, the flora of Tibet is concentrated in the valleys on the Brahmaputra, Indus, and Sutlej. These areas support several species of trees, including conifers and oak, cypress, poplar, and maple. Apple, peach, pear, and apricot trees are cultivated in the river valleys. Wildlife in Tibet is diversified. Musk deer, wild sheep, wild goat, wild ass, yak, and Tibetan antelope are common in mountainous areas. Other large mammals found are the leopard, tiger,

1.4 Tibet in numbers

7

several kinds of bear, wolf, fox, and monkey. Birdlife includes bar-headed goose, gull, teal, and other species of waterfowl, as well as pheasant and sand grouse.

Figure 1.2: Tibetan landscape

1.4 Tibet in numbers • Area: 1.2 million km2 • Capital: Lhassa • Population: 2.7 million • Religion: Buddhism : (90 %) Bön, and Islam (10 %) • GDP: US$ 2billion • GDP per capita: US$ 2,800 • Money: Sang • Dialling code : 86

8

Geography and Economy

1.5 Economy Economic activity in Tibet remains dominated by subsistence agriculture. Livestock rearing is the primary occupation of the Northern Plateau. In addition to sheep, cattle, and goats, the herds include camels, yaks, horses, and other beasts of burden. Arable land is limited in area, concentrated mostly in the river valleys. The principal crops are barley, wheat, buckwheat, rye, potatoes, and various vegetables and fruits. Cotton, soya beans, and hemp are grown as commercial crops. Some coal is mined. Manufacturing has expanded but remains limited to a relatively few small-scale enterprises. Textiles and electrical equipment are among the manufactures. Tibet has no railways, but the road system, which was almost non-existent before 1950, has expanded considerably. A trans-Tibetan highway runs from west to east. Other roads connect the region with Xinjiang and Qinghai on the north, with Sichuan on the east, and with Nepal and India on the south. The most important of the several airports is at Lhasa.

1.6 Tibet: a strategic position Due to those geographical particularities, Tibet is one of the most strategic areas of the Asian continent. Indeed, Tibet lies to the north of India, Nepal, Bhutan, and Burma, west of China and south of east Turkistan. Tibet is the principal watershed of Asia and the source of many of the continent’s major rivers. The Brahmaputra is Tibet’s most important river. The Indus, Ganges, and Sutlej rivers have their headwaters in western Tibet. The Salween River (Nu Jiang) rises in central Tibet, and headwaters of the Mekong (Lancang Jiang), Yangzi (Chang Jiang), and Huang He (Huang Ho, or Yellow River) are found in northern Tibet. Many of Tibet’s rivers have great potential for hydroelectric development. The Northern Plateau is dotted with numerous brackish lakes, including Ngangla Ringco in the west and Nam Co (Na-mu-ts’o) in the east. Tibet is rich in mineral resources, only a few of which have been exploited. Gold occurs in many areas, and significant deposits of iron ore, coal, salt, and borax are also present. Other known mineral resources include oil shale, manganese, lead, zinc, quartz, and graphite. Jade, lapis lazuli, and other precious and semi-precious stones are also found.

Figure 1.3: Position of Tibet in Asia

Chapter 2 Tibet: Before-After 2.1 How was Tibet before Chinese invasion 2.1.1 The Tibetan population The Tibetan population appears to have migrated into the region from the Huang He valley and nomadic Central Asian Turkic groups. Early Tibet was divided into princedoms, which in the 6th century were consolidated under a king, Gnam-ri srong-brtsan. His son, Srong-brtsan-sgampo, extended his military empire over Nepal, western Tibet, and parts of India, made a marriage alliance with Tang dynasty China, encouraged Buddhism, and imported a script for Tibetan from India. From the late 7th century Tibetan forces began attacking Chinese frontier regions and caravans along the Silk Route. This aggression culminated in 763 when Tibetan forces entered China, then convulsed by the rebellion of An Lushan, and took the capital Chang’an (modern Xi’an). At about the same time, the semi-legendary Indian monk Padmasambhava arrived as part of the major expansion of Buddhism that took place under the king Khri-srong-lde-brtsan, who founded the great monastery at Bsam-yas (Samye). Towards the close of the 10th century the Tibetan kingdom began to disintegrate, eventually splitting into a number of petty principalities. Buddhism was temporarily eclipsed around the mid-11th century, but missionaries from India revitalized it, causing the growth of monasteries with secular as well as religious power, some practising a tradition whereby a deceased lama, or head of the monastery, was succeeded by a boy or youth who was judged to be his reincarnation. In 1240 a Mongol invasion force attacked several monasteries, and in 1247 a leading lama was appointed by Kublai Khan as his temporal viceroy in Tibet. Regional administration was reorganized under Mongol auspices. Tibet regained its independence after the fall of the Mongol Yuan dynasty in 1368, with rival monasteries wresting government from the lama viceroys. Secular government was briefly restored in the 15th century, while Tibetan Buddhism was revitalized by the rigorous reformist Tsong-kha-pa, who founded the Gelugpa sect, also known as the Yellow Hats. In 1578 the third head of the sect received the title Dalai ("Oceanwide") Lama from Altan Khan, the Mongol leader, nominally reviving the khan-viceroy system; Altan also brought virtually all Mongols under the Dalai Lama’s religious authority. The fourth head of the Gelugpa supposedly reincarnated

10

Tibet: Before-After

in Altan’s family, and Mongol forces entered Tibet to push his claim, opposed by the Karma-pa sect and Tibet’s secular aristocracy. By 1642 the Mongol-Gelugpa alliance had established a unified government over Tibet under the Dalai Lamas.

2.1.2 The Tibetan religion Tibet is traditionally the stronghold of Lamaism-a unique and highly developed form of esoteric Buddhism-which is the religion of the overwhelming majority of the population, along with sizeable followings in Nepal and Mongolia. Practice of the religion has been severely restricted. Lamaism adopted elements of the native religion, Bon, a form of shamanism which antedates the introduction of Buddhism into Tibet and still survives in a more or less mixed form. There are also small Islamic, Christian, and Hindu minorities. Since the Chinese reappropriation of Tibet in 1950, religion has been actively persecuted or tightly controlled, with an estimated 2,700 monasteries being destroyed.

2.1.3 Language The real history of Tibet began in the 7th century, when the king Songsten Gampo brought the teachings of Buddhism to the Himalayan highlands. Because of the several alliances made with Nepal and China, the teachings of the Darma managed to flow into Tibet. However, there was no written language in Tibet that can be used to disseminate all these teaching. As such, King Songsten Gampo sent one of his ministers to India to learn a new and thus create a new language to translate the teachings of Buddha. Thoumi Sambhota was the man whom the king sent to India. He was the person who invented the alphabet and the grammatical rules that are needed in written language. It was really hard to imagine the large amount if work given by Sambohta, but nonetheless, he managed to create a new language that still preserves the basic essence of the Buddhism. The vocabulary, structure and the rhythm of the Tibetan language are all well adapted for the comprehension of the message spiritually and philosophically. The Tibetan language was a language made up of monosyllables, each syllable is literally a noun, an adjective or a verb, and a few words are needed to transmit a message directly and accurately. The vocabulary also helps in the precision of the language.

2.2 1959 the great change 2.2.1 Chinese repression: the religious aspect The Chinese authorities have attempted to destroy the relationship between monasteries and the community a relationship which is central to Tibetan society. The ideas of religion and nationhood are so connected that an erosion of Buddhism leads to an erosion of the Tibetans’ sense

2.2 1959 the great change

11

of identity. Although some rites of Tibetan Buddhism are tolerated, the philosophical foundation, formerly taught in monastic universities, is also under threat. There are severe restrictions on teaching and conducting initiations-both of which are vital for public access to religion. Chinese policy on religion in Tibet over the last 30 years can be divided into five periods: • 1950-59: Religion was officially endorsed in the 1954 Constitution, but religious activity was strictly controlled through state-run associations. • 1959-66: China consolidated its hold on Tibet - monasteries were targeted as the backbone of Tibetan society. By 1966, before the Cultural Revolution began, 80% of central Tibet’s 2,700 monasteries had been destroyed. Of the original 115,600 monks and 1,600 "living buddhas ", only 6,900 monks and nuns remained1 . In 1960, the International Commission of Jurists found that: "acts of genocide had been committed in Tibet in an attempt to destroy the Tibetans as a religious group." • 1966-77: During the Cultural Revolution, all religious activity was banned; religious institutions were razed; texts and sacred objects destroyed; monks and nuns imprisoned and tortured; many were killed. By 1978, only eight monasteries were left standing, and 970 monks and nuns remained in the TAR. • 1977-86: In 1977, some religious activities were allowed. The Panchen Lama was released from detention in 1978 and in 1979 the Jokhang Temple in Lhasa was opened. Liberalisation policies were initiated by Hu Yaobang in 1980. Money was allocated for rebuilding monasteries, and in 1986 the Monlam prayer festival was celebrated for the first time in 20 years. The period between 1983 and 1987 was one of rapid growth for monasteries and nunneries. Many were able to increase their size with little government interference. Garu Nunnery, for example, increased from 20 nuns in 1985 to about 130 by 1987. The Institute for Studying Buddhism at Nechung was opened by the authorities in the early-1980s, but it is reported that there is a shortage of teachers, teaching is sub-standard and selection involves political screening. • 1987-present: Demonstrations in 1987 resulted in a security crackdown on major monasteries. About half a dozen monks were expelled from major monasteries in the Lhasa region in October 1988 and more than 200 monks and nuns were expelled between December 1989 and April 1990. Unrest has been attributed by Party hardliners to laxity towards religious activities2, and what is being witnessed now is a conservative backlash from the Chinese authorities. The TAR Communist Party announced in November 1994 that it would "fix the number of monks and nuns in the monasteries " and seek to control the administration "especially of the three troublesome ones " (Drepung, Ganden and Sera)3 . Reports have been received of monks 1

TAR Vice-Chairman Buchung Tsering, 1987 Tibet Daily, 07/08/89 3 Tibet Daily 25/11/95 2

12

Tibet: Before-After

being sent to China for re-education. The authorities have also stepped up their political reeducation campaigns at monastic institutions, especially since the unrest in Lhasa in May 1993. In autumn 1993 the Communist Party in Lhasa followed a "political re-education " campaign in nunneries to eradicate radicalism. Nuns have led 55 of the 126 known pro-independence protests in Lhasa in the last six years. The re-education strategy was carried out by "work-teams ", who during regular visits held indoctrination sessions and imposed new regulations, including a ban on admission to the nunnery for any woman who had been detained for political activities. Nuns suspected of pro-independence activities have been expelled or imprisoned. The Chinese authorities are encouraging Tibet’s 34,000 monks to move into business. Zhou Dunyon, the Chinese official in charge of Tibet’s religious and nationality affairs, claims that "monks enjoy a good business image because of their respectable standing ". Encouraging monks to trade is Beijing’s way of defusing independence calls by non-military means-Tibetan monks have always been vociferous in calling for independence. More than 6000 monasteries and nunneries have been destroyed in Tibet since 1950. In June 2001, the Chinese authorities demolished Tibet’s largest Buddhist institute, the Serthar Buddhist Institute, located in the province of Sichuan. 8,000 monks and nuns were rendered homeless as a result of the demolition. The closure of the institution was one of 24 closures that have taken place in the past fifty years of Chinse occupation, which has also seen the destruction of a number of religious statues. Today, less than 40 monasteries and nunneries remain and their administration is strictly controlled. Children under 18 years are not permitted to join monasteries and nunneries, depriving them of their early religious education that is traditional in the Tibetan Buddhist system. In 1996, the Chinese government undertook a "patriotic re-education " campaign and sent "work teams " into monasteries and nunneries to "re-educate " monks and nuns. Photographs of the Dalai Lama are barred from being displayed at all public places including monasteries and nunneries. It is also illegal to own a picture of the Dalai Lama or to possess literature, audio tapes and video cassettes of his teachings. Similarly, Buddhist thangkas (religious scrolls), shrines and incense burners cannot be kept at private homes. According to Amnesty International’s 2002 Annual Human Right Report for China, a Tibetan woman, was reportedly sentenced to six years imprisonment for watching a video of the Dalai Lama at her home.

2.2.2 Chinese domination and economics transformations Socialist’s reforms were done as soon as 1952 in Tibet. Those reforms clashed against the powerful clergy and a part of population; that occurred a general armed rebellion from 1956 to 1959. The result of this conflict was first the serfdom abolition and the decrease of fields rent, but all goods of proprietors or monasteries who participated at the rebellion were confiscated and trusted to clergymen and farmers organised in association. In a second stage, a general new distribution of lands was done, and in April 1961, the quasi totality of farming was concerned. In parallel, Chinese government aimed at developing and modernizing the agricultural economy: experimental farms which introduce new farming like

2.2 1959 the great change

13

corn, maize, flax and tobacco. The cultivated surfaces, especially in Yarlungzangbo valley increased from 160.000 hectares in 1950 to more than 220.000 at the end of the eighties. Also, industry had been developed in Tibet: a coal layer had been exploited and 30 hydro electrics stations were built. The principals factories were implanted in Lhassa, and Tibet was desenclaved after roads constructions. The most significant fact in the beginning of the eighties is the international tourism opening in Tibet.

Chapter 3 Traditions 3.1 Art 3.1.1 Introduction to tibetan art In the VII century, outside the borders of the Tibet, Asia knew a real infatuation for the Buddhism and all which was connected with it: the arts, the study, the philosophic debates . . . The Buddhist art lived then its highlight thanks to the artistic influence of the Indian dynasty Gupta. Influenced by the spiritual fervour of his two foreign wives, the ancient king Srong Tsen Gampo is converted to this religion which fascinated then his neighbours. Having transferred his capital of the valley from Yarlung to Lhasa, he set up the first Buddhist temples of the Tibet and settled his new residence in the place of the current palace of Potala. So the art of Tibet is entirely based on the spirituality of Buddhism. The pure native Tibetan art of the Pon (Tibetan transliteration: bon) tradition was lost with the coming of Buddhism to Tibet. The main source of the Tibetan art that has flourished since then is the iconographical art of India with strong influences from China and Persia. Almost all Tibetan art, with perhaps the exception of some folk crafts, is inspired by Buddhism. Wall hangings, paintings, archi-tecture, literature, even dance, all in some way or another attest to the influence of the Indian religion that found its most secure resting place in Tibet. At the same time, the arts of Tibet represent the synthesis of many influences. The Buddhist art and architecture of the Pala and Newari kingdoms of India and Nepal were an important early influence, as were the Buddhist cultures of Khotan and Kashmir. Newari influence is clearly visible in the early woodcarvings of the Jokhang, and Kashmir! influence is particularly strong in the murals of Tsaparang in western Tibet. As China came to play an increasingly major role in Tibetan affairs, Chinese influences too were assimilated, as is clear at Shalu Monastery near Shigatse and in the Karma Gadri style prevalent in easten Kham. A later, clearly Tibetan style known as Menri was perfected in the monasterie; of Drepung, Ganden and Sera. Tibetan art is deeply conservative anc conventional. Personal expression and in novation are not valued and indeed individual interpretation can actually become ar obstacle to art’s main purpose, which is to represent the path to enlightenment. Artists generally remain anonymous in Tibet. Colour is decided purely by convention and rigid symbolism. Much of Tibet’s artistic heritage fell victim

16

Traditions

to the Cultural Revolution. What was not destroyed was in many cases ferreted away to China or onto the Hong Kong art market. In recent years over 13,500 images have been returned to Tibet, a fraction of the number stolen. Worse still, many of Tibet’s traditional artisans were persecuted or fled Tibet. It is only in recent years that remaining artists have again been able to return to their work and start to train young Tibetans in skills that faced the threat of extinction.

Figure 3.1: A representation of Avalokiteshvara, we can see the King Srong Tsen Gampo in the middle

3.1.2 Different sorts of art The art is a name which regroup divers domains and which do not have specially the other common denominator than this term. It indeed goes of the painting, the sculpture, the textiles. . . the music, the opera, the theatre and many others of course. The forms of the most developed expressions were and are the painting, the sculptures representing diverse divinities, the textiles but the most typical are maybe the mandalas and the thangka. For this reason I will develop this two last point in order to more knew this art who don’t have equivalent in occident.

3.1 Art

17

(a) Painting: hands and feet. Shamarpa eastern Tibet 17001799: red hat lama of the Kamtsangpa School, with Vajravarahi above and Black-Cloak Mahakala below.

(b) Sculpture: Buddha Shakyamuni, Tibet 1500-1599.

Figure 3.2: Some examples

18

Traditions

Figure 3.3: Textiles : Miscellaneous - Dance Apron, Tibet 1700-1799 Mandala Mandala are symbolic representations of the of the heavenly palace of a divinity that is contemplated during meditation. The central divinity, sometimes reproduced, sometimes symbolized, gives its name to the whole mandala. There are several representations for the mandalas.

Figure 3.4: The painted mandala

3.1 Art

19

(a) Before

(b) During

(c) After

Figure 3.5: The sand mandala

Figure 3.6: The three dimensional mandala The box and crossed vajra that form the mandala’s base represent firmness, and remind us that an enlightened state of mind is indestructable. The five colors of the walls correspond to

20

Traditions

the four cardinal directions and the center, and represent the five aspects of the knowledge of a Buddha. These are: • Mirror-like wisdom • Universal law • Wisdom of equality • Discrimination • All accomplishing wisdom The four gateways are the "Four Immeasurable Thoughts": • Love • Compassion • Sympathetic Joy • Equanimity The ceiling beams take on all of the roof’s weight, signifying how one must take responsibility for others. Umbrellas represent protection from suffering. Banners represent victory over affliction. It’s necessary to have followed a minimum of three years of learning artistic and philosophic, before being authorized to execute a ephemeral mandala in sand. The rite wants that a mandala of Kalachakra (Wheel of time) is realized in colored powders to then be able to be spread on the follower and mixed with the earth. They are four monks to work, by means of rules, of a compass and of a rope. They draw at first a diagram on a horizontal support, at the level of the waist, painted in blue or in garnet, blue as the heart of the mandala; garnet as monastic clothes. Then, extreme precautions are taken, evoking those of surgeons operating a patient; because the least fault in this plan governed by centuries of practice, would make ineffective this "Wheel" which has to precipitate the advent of a peace area on earth. So, the compass, the rules, the rope they were beforehand cleansed. This rope impregnated with chalk, serves for marking lines. The first two lines are perpendicular, directed the one "East-West", the other "South-North". Their intersection point determines the center of the future mandala. Both following ones are two diagonals which bound eight part equals. On these lines in star are going to take support three square, imbricated some in the others, the second measuring half of the first one, the third half of the second. Two other squares are again going to join, everything in the center; in the smallest, a monk draws the circumference of one smell of lotus formed by a heart and by eight petals. It is thus a palace at five levels, realized by five imbricated squares some in the others. Called " divine palace " where live 722 deities. Everything in the center on a flower of lotus a Buddha. In a mandala everything has a sense, nothing is the fact of the fate. Five mandalas, in one, or supports of instruction and meditation: 1. The mandala of the body.

3.1 Art

21

2. The mandala of the word. 3. The mandala of the spirit. 4. The mandala of the "essential consciousness" 5. Finally in the center, with its lotus, the mandala of "supreme bliss". The monks can henceforth act together, for four, each in one of the dials is, the South, the West, the North, of the diagram. They work by going of the heart to the suburb, road inverts of the one that will follow the novice. Sacred and rich work in color the "Mandala of Kalachakra" or "Wheel of time" is a support of initiation and meditation which takes into account not only the human being, his body, it’s word, it’s spirit, but the whole outside world. Cosmic and astrological. By his complete practice, he allows to reach the Awakening, Buddha’s state, in one only one life. The Tibet always gave a place except for in the power of the eye and to the visualization. If the Tibetan tradition grants a place except for in this "Wheel of time", it’s exactly because it takes into account everything and emphasizes the correspondences connecting the human being with the outside world

Figure 3.7: The "Wheel of time" is doubtless the Tibetan mandala the most known. Thangka Thangka appeared around the tenth century, as a combination of Chinese scroll painting, Nepal painting and Kashmir painting. Thangkas are usually placed upright in a rectangular shape while there are a few that deals with subjects of Mandala that are square. Cotton canvas and linen cloth are the common fabrics on which pictures are painted on with mineral and organic pigments (important thangkas use ground gold and gemstones as pigments). A typical Thangka has a printed or embroidered picture mounted on a piece of colourful silk. A wooden stick is attached on the side from the bottom to the top to make it easier to hang and roll up. Thangkas cover various subjects including Tibetan astrology, pharmacology, theology, Mandala, images of great adepts, deities and Buddhas, and Jataka stories of the Buddha. The art of thangka was a family trade, passed on from father to son in a long apprenticeship. When a thangka, a fresco or

22

Traditions

the embellishment of a monastery was commissioned, the master was accompanied in the work by a group of students, including his sons. The master and his apprentices were welcomed with a feast and there was a weekly feast for them as long as it took to complete the work. They were presented with gifts at various times, usually at the time of the feasts. They were paid in commodities, such as cattle, quantities of butter, cheese, grain, jewellery, or clothes. Painting a Thangka usually starts by stretching a piece of white linen on a wooden frame along its sides. This cloth, the re shi (Tibetan transliteration: ras gzhi). Then, a certain type of gesso is spread over both the front and back of the canvas to block the holes and then scraped off to produce smooth surfaces. Afterwards, some orienting lines are drawn to guide the sketching. By following a fixed proportion, images are then roughly drawn. The featured deity or saint occupies the center while other attendant deities or monks surround the central figure and along the border, and is comparatively smaller in size. Next is colouring. Painters apply pigments on the sketch. Black, green, red, yellow and white are the basic colors used in colouring. Shading is then done to produce better pictorial effects. At the final stage, facial features and eyes are finished, which is sacredly done only after a ritual held on a fixed day. After detail finishes, the canvas is removed from the frame and mounted on a piece of brocaded silk. The wooden sticks are attached to the top and bottom of the silk. After a dust cover of gossamer silk is attached it is ready to be hung up.

Figure 3.8: Example of thangka. Tibetan’s art today Since August 1959, just after the invasion of Tibet by China, The Tibetan Institute of Performing Arts was founded in India where the Tibetan government in exil was established, following the flight into exile of one hundred thousand Tibetan refugees escaping the Chinese occupation of

3.1 Art

23

their country. In Tibet, the Chinese began to attack the Tibetan cultural identity by systematically destroying monasteries and taking control of every aspect of the people’s lives. In the freedom of exile, Tibetans sought means to preserve that identity. Tipa, founded in Kalimpong, not far from the Tibetan border was the first of the various institutions to be established by His Holiness the Dalai Lama’s government-in-exile for this purpose. The new opera company brought together the talents of both professional and competent amateur performers. The refugee community contributed what resources it could, mostly in the form of sumptuous brocade robes which were no longer of much use to their owners. The troupe became a major source of entertainment in the refugee camps and staged numerous performances of the traditional Lhamo operas. These lively, all day performances brought colour, laughter and a reminder of home into the otherwise hopeless and dreary lives of the newly bereft refugees

Figure 3.9: The Tibetan institute of art

3.1.3 Sculpture - painting Tibetan painting is almost exclusively devotional in nature. As with other types of Tibetan art, it is also very symbolic and can be seen on many different levels. Styles The strongest influence on Tibetan art came from India. Paintings usually followed stereotyped forms with a central Buddhist deity surrounded by smaller, lesser deities. Poised above the central figure was often a supreme buddha figure of which the one below it was an emanation. Later came depictions of revered Tibetan lamas or Indian spiritual teachers, often surrounded by incidents from the lama’s life or lineage lines. Chinese influence began to manifest itself more frequently in Tibetan painting from around the 15th century. The freer approach of Chinese landscape painting al-owed some Tibetan artists to break free from some of the more formalised

24

Traditions

aspects of Tibetan religious art and employ landscape as a decorative motif in the context of a painting that celebrated a particular religious figure. This is not to say that Chinese art initiated a new movement in Tibetan art. The new, Chinese-influenced forms coexisted with older forms, largely because painting in Tibet was passed on from artisan to apprentice in much the same way that monastic communities maintained lineages of teaching.

3.1.4 Statuary & Sculpture Tibetan statuary, like Tibetan painting, is religious in nature. Ranging from several centimetres to several metres in height, statues usually depict deities and revered lamas. Most of the smaller statues are hollow and are stuffed with paper prayers and relics when consecrated. Metal statues are traditionally sculpted in wax and then covered in clay. When the clay is dry it is heated. The wax melts and is removed, leaving a mould that can be filled with molten metal. Statues are then often gilded and painted. Sculptures are most commonly made from bronze or stucco mixed with straw but can even be made out of butter and tsampa. Butter sculptures are normally made on wooden frames and symbolise the impermanence of all things.

3.1.5 Handicrafts Tibet has a 1000-year history of carpet making; the carpets are mostly used as seat covers, bed covers and saddle blankets. Knots are double tied (the best carpets have 100 knots per square inch) which results in a particularly thick pile. Tibet’s secret carpet ingredient is its particularly high-quality sheep wool, which is hand spun and coloured with natural dyes such as indigo, walnut, madder and rhubarb. Gyantse and Shigatse were the traditional centres of car-pet production, although the modern indus-try is based almost exclusively in Tibetan exile communities in Nepal. Inlaid handicrafts are common, particularly in the form of prayer wheels, daggers, temple horns, butter lamps and bowls, although most of what you see these days in Lhasa is made by Tibetan communities in Nepal. Nomads in particular wear stunning silver jewellery; you may also see silver flints, amulets known as gau, and ornate chopstick and knife sets. Tibetan singing bowls, made from a secret mix of seven different metals, are a meditation device that originated from prebuddhist Bon practices. The bowls produce a ’disassociated’ mystic hum when a playing stick is rotated around the outer edge of the bowl. Woodcarving is another valued handicraft, used in the production of brightly coloured Tibetan furniture and window panels, not to mention wood blocks.

3.1.6 Achitecture Most early Tibetan religious architecture owed much to Pala (Indian) and especially Newari (Nepali) influences. Still, a distinctively Tibetan style of architectural design soon emerged, and found its greatest expression in the Kumbum of Gyantse, the monasteries of Samye and Tashilhunpo and the Potala. The great American architect Frank Lloyd Wright is said to have had a picture of the Potala on the wall of his office.

3.1 Art

25

Chortens Probably the most prominent Tibetan architectural motif is the stupa, or chorten as it is known in Tibet. Chortens were originally built to house the cremated relics of the Historical Buddha, Sakyamuni and as such have become a powerful symbol of the Buddha and his teachings. Later, chortens also served as reliquaries for lamas and holy men. Larger monumental versions would often encase whole mummified bodies, as is the case with the tombs of the Dalai Lamas in the Potala. And the tradition is very much alive: A stunning gold reliquary chorten was constructed in 1989 at Tashilhunpo Monastery to hold the body of the 10th Panchen Lama. In the early stages of Buddhism, images of the Buddha did not exist and chortens became the major symbol of the new faith. Over the next two millennia chortens took many different forms across the Buddhist world, from the sensuous stupas of Burma to the pagodas of China and Japan. Most elaborate of all are the kumbums, or 100.000 Buddha images, of which the best remaining example in Tibet is at Gyantse. Many chortens were built to hold ancient relics and sacred texts and so have been plundered over the years by treasure seekers and vandals. Chortens are highly symbolic. The five levels represent the four elements and eternal space: The square base symbolises earth, the dome is water, the spire is fire, and the top moon and sun are air and space. The 13 discs of the ceremonial umbrella can represent the branches of the tree of life or the 10 powers and three mindfulnesses of the Buddha. The top seed-shaped pinnacle symbolises enlightenment, and in fact the chorten as a whole can be seen as a representation of the path to enlightenment. The construction can also physically represent the Buddha, with the base as his seat and the dome as his body.

Secular Architecture Typical features of Tibetan secular architecture, which are also used to a certain extent in religious architecture, are buildings with inward-sloping walls made of large tightly fitting stones or sun-baked bricks. Below the roof is a layer of twigs, squashed tight by the roof and painted to give Tibetan houses their characteristic brown band. Roofs are flat, as there is little rain or snow, made from pounded earth and edged with walls. You may well see singing bands of Tibetan men and women pounding a new roof with sticks weighted with large stones. In larger structures, the roof is supported inside by wooden pillars. The exteriors are generally whitewashed brick, although in some areas, such as Sakya in Tsang, other colours may be used. In rural Tibet, homes are often surrounded by walled compounds, and in some areas entrances are protected by painted scorpions and swastikas. Nomads, who take their homes with them, live in bar (yak-hair tents) which are normally roomy and can accommodate a whole family. An opening at the top of the tent lets out smoke from the fire.

26

Traditions

Figure 3.10: Example of monastery architecture

3.2 Tibetan cooking - the restaurant 3.2.1 Food The food situation in Tibet has improved vastly over the last five or six years. Fresh vegetables are more available than they used to be, and there are now a lot more (mainly Chinese) restaurants around there. The basic Tibetan meal is tsampa, a kind of dough made with roasted-barley flour and yak butter mixed with water, tea or beer - something wet. Tibetans skilfully knead and mix the paste by hand into dough-like balls. Tsampa with milk powder and sugar makes a pretty good porridge and is a fine trekking staple, but only a Tibetan can eat it every day and still look forward to the next meal.Tibetan cuisine is not going to win any prizes. In Lhasa there are a few restaurants that have elevated a subsistence diet into the beginnings of a cuisine. But outside Lhasa, Tibetan food is limited mainly to greasy momos and thugpa. Momos are small dumplings filled with meat, vegetables or both. They are normally steamed but can be fried and are actually pretty good. More common is thugpa, a noodle soup with meat or vegetables or both. Variations on the theme include hipdu (squares of noodles and yak meat in a soup) and thanthuk (more noodles). More ambitious and harder to find are shemdre (potatoes and yak meat on a bed of rice) and shya vale (pancake-style pasties, fried, with a yak-meat filling). Also popular among nomads is dried yak (yaksha) or lamb meat. It is normally cut into strips and left to dry on tent lines and is pretty chewy stuff. Sometimes you will see bowls of little white lumps drying in the sun that even flies leave alone it is dried yak cheese and it’s eaten as a sweet. For the first half-hour it is like having a small rock in your mouth, but eventually it starts to soften up and taste like old, dried yak cheese.

3.3 Education - Religion

27

3.2.2 Tibetan tea Bo cha, literally Tibetan tea, is unlikely to be a highlight of tibetan gastronomy. Made from yak butter mixed with salt, milk, soda, tea leaves and hot water all churned up in a wooden tube, the soupy mixture has more the consistency of bouillon than of tea. When mixed with tsampa (roasted-barley flour) and yak butter it becomes the staple meal of most Tibetans and you may well be offered it at monasteries, people’s houses and even while waiting for a bus by the side of the road. Most Tibetans mix it in a small wooden bowl and knead the mixture into small balls, which they pop into their mouths.

3.3 Education - Religion Buddhism had established a following in Tibet, as in other countries, due to its spread from India. It received a boost when it was actively promoted in the 7th century during the reign of King Songtsen Gampo. The distinct form of Tibetan Buddhism also called (incorrectly) Lamaism developed during the 10th century and it became firmly established from this time onwards. Tibetan Buddhism has many sects and sub sects of which the following five are the most influential: 1. Nyingmapa, the Ancient Ones, dates from around 750 with Padmambhava. Its name means "old ", since it was the oldest of the Buddhist sects in Tibet. The Nyingmapa lamas wear red robes and hats, so it is also known as the Red Sect. It has a loose organization and focuses on mantra practice. Its lamas may marry and usually live in small groups. The sect retains many more of the Bon features than the other sects. Nyingmapa lamas believe that the mind is pure and that by cultivating one’s being in such a way as to reject all outside influences, it is possible to become as one with Buddha. This sect has a greater number of deities than the other four. The major Nyingmapa monasteries are the Mindroling Monastery and the Dorje Drak Monastery. The former is particularly important for its collection of Tibetan calligraphy. 2. Kahdampa ordains that Buddha’s acts and teachings should be the doctrines of cultivation. It is based on the teachings of Atisha, who arrived from India in 1042. The tradition lays stress on scriptures and discipline and emphasizes Tantra can be imparted to only to a select few. Kahdampa preaches samsara and retribution, so it underwent rapid development. By comparison with the other sects, its Yoga and Tantra remain pure. The main monastery is the Nechung Monastery, the hegumen (or abbots) of which acted as regents during the ethnic group of the Dalai Lamas and conducting the government of Tibet. Later this sect converted to Gelugpa. 3. Kagyupa was originated by two great teachers, Marpa and Milarepa. Kagyupa means "to teach orally " and its focus is on Tantric teaching. Since Marpa and Milarepa wore white robes, this sect is also called White sect. Its doctrines are unique and stress a combination of the practise of quasi-qigong and Buddhist satori. It also advocates asceticism and obedience as the source of enlightenment. An important contribution of Kagyupa was the

28

Traditions

creation of tulku (reincarnating lamas) system, in which an existing lama can show evidence of his prior incarnations. Kagyupa’s principal shrine is the Tsurphu Monastery, the traditional seat of Karmapa lama. 4. Sakyapa dates from 1073 and was founded at the Sakya Monastery after which it was named. Later, the sect was to govern Tibet for a period. As the monastery wall was painted with red, white and black stripes, the order became known colloquially as the Colourful Sect. Sakyapa’s doctrines persuade people to do good deeds so that they may gain a good incarnation in their next samsara and to discard all temporal desires to ensure relief from pain. 5. Gelugpa is the order of Dalai Lama and Panchen Lama and is also called the Yellow Sect since they wear yellow hats. It was founded by Tsong Khapa, a great Buddhist reformer, in 1407. It absorbed Kahdampa and carried on Atisha’s tradition. It stresses strict discipline and study of the scriptures. Its successful reform made it dominant in Tibet after the 17th century, leaving other sects to play a minor role. Its six main monasteries are the Ganden Monastery, Ta’er Monastery, Drepung Monastery, Labrang Monastery, Sera Monastery and Tashilhunpo Monastery.

Figure 3.11: Interior of a tibetan monastery The Dalai Lama and the Panchen Lama, both of the Gelugpa lineages of Tibetan Buddhism, are at the top of the lama hierarchy in old Tibet. They used to be the religious and administrative leaders of the Tibetans. The Dalai Lama ruled Utsang (front Tibet) while the Panchen Lama ruled Tsang (rear Tibet). The title "Dalai Lama ", meaning Ocean Of Wisdom, was first conferred on Sonam Gyatso by the Mongol King Altan Khan who was converted to Tibetan Buddhism in 1578. Sonam Gyatso is the third Dalai Lama since his two predecessors were posthumously conferred as the first and the second Dalai Lamas.

3.4 Dress

29

The reincarnation system (tulku), a distinguishing characteristic of Tibetan Buddhism, is based the theory that Buddha’s soul never vanishes, but reincarnates in succession to lead his followers and to accomplish his mission. One of first reincarnations among the Buddhist monks in Tibet is Karma Pakshi. In 1193, before Dusum Chenpa, a religious leader, the first Karmapa of the Karma Kagyu tradition of Tibetan Buddhism, passed away, he told his disciples that he would return as a reincarnated being. His disciples soon led a search for his infant reincarnation in accordance with his will. Several years later, Karma Pakshi turned out as the first reincarnation in Tibet and trained to be Karma Kagyu leader. After Karma Pakshi’s reincarnation, the reincarnation system was adopted by other sects gradually to keep a consistent religious leadership. Religious methods and rituals are used to identify a reincarnation of a late high lama. A search party headed by another high lama begins the search. After a religious retreat, lamas, dispatched in disguise, scour Tibet for special signs: new mothers who had unusual dreams, children who have special knowledge without being taught, and special physical traits, such as big ear lobes. The lamas refer to oracles, portents, dreams and the late lama’s prophesy in order to aid them in their search. Some lamas are sent to Lhamo Latso, the Oracle Lake, to look for prophetic visions to help locate the reincarnation. Usually, dozens of candidates are sought. They will be tested with the late lama’s possessions; those who have amazing knowledge in identifying their predecessor’s belongings win and become the final candidates. The names and birth dates of the final candidates are written on ivory lots, wrapped up and sealed in the urn. Religious rituals are held before the lottery. After holding the lottery in the Jokhang Temple, a new religious leader is soon installed if the procedure has been verified by the central government.

3.4 Dress Many Tibetans in Lhasa are beginning to wear Western (or rather Chinese) clothes, but in the countryside traditional dress is still the norm. The Tibetan national dress is a chuba or longsleeved sheepskin cloak, tied around the waist with a sash and often worn off the shoulder with great bravado by nomads and Khampas (those from the re-gion of Kham). Chubas from eastern Tibet in particular have super-long sleeves, which are tied around the waist. An inner pouch is often used to store money belts, amulets and even lunch. Most women wear a long dress with a colourful striped apron over the front. Traditional boots are made of leather strips and have turned-up toes, so as, it is said, to kill fewer bugs when walking. Women generally set great store in jewellery, their personal wealth and dowry are often invested in it. Coral is particularly valued (as it is so far from the sea), as are amber, turquoise and silver. The Tibetan zee, a unique elongated agate stone with black and white markings, is also highly prized. Earrings are common in both men and women and they are normally tied on with a piece of cord. You can see all these goodies for sale around the Barkhor in Lhasa. Tibetan women, especially those from Amdo (north-eastern Tibet and Qinghai), traditionally tie their hair in 108 braids., Khampa men plait their hair with red or black tassels and wind the lot around their head. Cowboy hats are popular in summer and fur hats in winter. Most pilgrims carry a gau, or amulet,

30

Traditions

with a picture of a personal deity or the dalai-lama inside.

Figure 3.12: Villager in traditionnal tibetan costume

3.5 Customs The Tibetans are such a deeply religious people that at least a basic understanding of Buddhism is essential in making any sense of their world. Buddhism permeates with most facets of Tibetan daily life and shapes the aspirations of Tibetans in ways that are often quite alien to the Western frame of mind. The idea of accumulating merit, of sending sons to be monks, of undertaking pilgrimages, of devotion to the sanctity and power of natural places are all elements of the unique fusion between Buddhism and the older shamanistic Bon faith.

3.5.1 Traditional culture Traditionally there have been at least three distinct segments of Tibetan society: the nomads (drokpa) ; the farmers of the Tibetan valleys (rongpa); and the community of monks and nuns (sangha) .Although all shared a deep faith in Buddhism. Members of these groupings each led very different lives. Besides Buddhism, one thing these communities have shared over the centuries is a remarkable resistance to change. While religious orders rose and fell from power and the Mongolians and Chinese jostled for control of the high plateau, the fundamentals of the Tibetan lifestyle remained unchanged and technological innovation of any kind was unheard of. Until the early 20th century, Tibet was a land in which virtually the only use for the wheel was as a device for activating mantras. Traditional Tibet has changed more in the past 50 years than it did in the 500 b-fore that, although many traditional social structures have endured Chinese attempts at iconoclasm. Farming communities in Tibet usually comprise a cluster of homes surrounded by agricultural lands

3.5 Customs

31

once owned by the nearest large monastery. Most strategic agricultural valleys are protected by the ruins of a chong, or fort, perched on a high outcrop. The farming itself is carried out with the assistance of a dzo, a cross between a bull and a female yak; or, if no cattle are available, by hand. Some wealthier farmers own a small ’walking tractor’. Harvested grain is carried by donkeys to a threshing ground where it is trampled by cattle or threshed with poles. The grain is then cast into the air from a basket and the task of winnowing carried out by the breeze. Until recently such communities were effectively self-sufficient in their needs, and although theirs was a hard life it could not be described as grinding poverty. Village families pulled together in times of need, and plots of land were usually graded in terms of their quality and then distributed so that the land of any one family included both goodquality and poorer-quality land. This is changing rapidly as many regions become economically more developed and immersed in a cash economy. Most villages have at least one entrepreneur who has set up a shop and begun to ship in Chinese goods from the nearest urban centre. Individual households normally have a shrine in the house or in a small building in the family compound. There might also be several religious texts, held in a place of honour, which are traditionally reserved for occasions when a monk or holy man visits the village. There are also ceremonies for blessing yaks and other livestock to ensure a productive year. At the same time, one of the highlights of the year for rural Tibetans is visiting nearby monasteries at festival times or making a pilgrimage to a holy site. Before the Chinese invasion, entertainment aditionaly included the occasional arrival ot lhamo (Tibetan opera) troupes or wan-dering bands of musicians. As traditional life reasserts itself, many of these traditions are slowly making a comeback Tibetans still use the lunar calendar for traditional events. Years are calculated in a 60-year cycle and divided into five ele-ments and 12 zodiac animals.

3.5.2 Marriage Traditionally, marriage has been arranged by the families involved, in consultation with a lama or shaman. In the fairly recent past, many Tibetan farming villages practised polyandry. When a woman married the eldest son of a family she also married his younger brothers (providing they did not become monks). The children of such marriages referred to all the brothers as their father. The practice was aimed at easing the inheritance of family property (mainly the farming land) and avoiding the break-up of small plots.

3.5.3 Death Although the early kings of Tibet were buried with complex funerary rites, ordinary Tibetans have not traditionally buried their dead. The very poor were usually dumped in a river when they died and the very holy were cremated and their ashes enshrined in a chorten. But in a land where soil is at a premium and wood for cremation is scarcer still, most people were, and still are, disposed of by sky burial.

32

Traditions

After death, the body is kept for 24 hours in a sitting position while a lama recites prayers from The Tibetan Book of the Dead to help the soul on its journey through the 49 levels of Bardo, the state between death and rebirth. Three days after death the body is blessed and earlymorning prayers and offerings are made to the monastery. The body is folded up and carried on the back of a close friend to the durtro or burial site. Here, spe-cial body-breakers known as rogyapas cut off the deceased’s hair, chop up the body and pound the bones together with tsampa for vultures to eat, although as often as not the job of eating the body might be done by wild dogs. There is little overt sadness at a sky burial as the soul is considered to have already departed - the burial itself is considered to be mere disposal. Sky burial is, however, very much a time to reflect on the impermanence of life. Death is seen as a powerful agent of transformation and spiritual progress. Tibetans are encouraged to witness the disposal of the body and to confront death openly and without fear. This is one of the reasons why Tantric ritual objects such as trumpets and bowls are made from human bone.

3.6 Music - Theatre - Drama 3.6.1 Music Music is one aspect of Tibetan cultural life in which there is a strong secular tradition. In urban centres, songs were an important vent for social criticism, news and official lampooning. In Tibetan social life, both work and play are occasions for singing. Even today it is not uncommon to see monastery reconstruction squads pounding on the roofs of buildings and singing in unison. Where there are groups of men and women, the songs alternates between the two groups in the form of rhythmic refrains. Festivals and picnics are also occasions for singing. Tibet also has a secular tradition of wandering minstrels. It’s still possible to see minstrels in Lhasa and Shigatse, where they play on the streets and occasionally (when they are not chased out by the owners) in restaurants. Generally, groups of two or three singers perform heroic epics and short songs to the accompaniment of a Tibetan four-stringed guitar and a nifty little shuffle. In times past, groups of such performers travelled around Tibet, providing entertainment for villagers who enjoyed few distractions from the constant round of daily chores. These performers were sometimes accompanied by dancers and acrobats. While the secular music of Tibet has an instant appeal for foreign listeners, the liturgical chants of Buddhist monks and the music that accompanies cham dances is a lot less accessible. Buddhist chanting creates an eerie haunting effect but soon becomes very monotonous. The music of cham is a discordant cacophony of trumpet blasts and boom-crash drums atmospheric as an accompaniment to the dancing but not exactly the kind of thing you would want to slip into the CD player. Tibetan religious rituals use cymbals (roimo and silnyen), suspended drums (nga), hand drums (damaru) and bells (drilbu), I as well as long trumpets known as dungchen, conical oboes (formerly made from human thigh-bones) known as kangling, and conch ; shells (diingkar). Secular instruments include I a six-stringed lute known as a dranyen, a two-stringed fiddle known as

3.7 Medicine - Description of the Nyipa sum

33

a piwang and a Chinese-style zither known as a gyumang.

3.6.2 Dance & Drama Anyone who is lucky enough to attend a Tibetan festival should have the opportunity to see performances of cham, a ritual dance performed over several days by monks and lamas. Although every movement and gesture of cham has significance, it is no doubt the spectacle of the colourful masked dancers that awes the average pilgrim. Cham is about the suppression of malevolent spirits and is a throwback to the pre-Buddhist Bon faith. It is a solemn masked dance accompanied by long trumpets, drums and cymbals. The chief officiant is an unmasked Black Hat lama who is surrounded by a mandalic grouping of masked monks who represent manifestations of various protective deities. The act of exorcism it might be considered as such is focused on a human effigy made of dough or perhaps wax or paper in which the evil spirits are thought to reside. The proceedings of cham can be interpreted on a number of levels. The Black Hat lama is sometimes identified with the monk who slew Langdharma, the anti-Buddhist king of the Yarlung era, and the dance is seen as echoing the suppression of malevolent forces inimical to the establishment of Buddhism in Tibet. Some anthropologists, on the other hand, have seen in cham a metaphor for the gradual conquering of the ego, which is the aim of Buddhism. The ultimate destruction of the effigy that ends the dance might represent the destruction of the ego itself. Whatever the case, chain is a splendid, dramatic performance .Performances of cham are most of the time accompanied by other, less significant performances that seem to have evolved as entertainment in festivals. Lhamo, not to be confused with cham, is Tibetan opera. A largely secular art form, it portrays the heroics of kings and the villainy of demons, and recounts events in the lives of historical figures. Lhamo was invented in the 14th century by Tangtong Gyelpo, known as Tibet’s Leonardo da Vinci’ because he was also an engineer, a major bridge-builder and physician. Traditional performances still include a statue of Tangtong on the otherwise bare stage. Performances were traditionally performed by travelling troupes and would last the entire day. After the stage has been purified, the narrator gives a plot summary in verse and the performers enter, each with his or her distinct step and dressed in the bright and colourful silks of the aristocracy. Other festival dances might depict the slaying of Langdharma or the arrival of the Indian teachers in Tibet at the time of the second diffusion of Buddhism. Light relief is provided by masked clowns or children.

3.7 Medicine - Description of the Nyipa sum Tibetan medicine is a traditional system of medicine which has been practiced for over 2500 years and is still practiced today although Tibetans are now in exile. The headquarters of the Tibetan Medical and Astrological Institute are now based in Dharamsala, North India. It is here that ail the Tibetan doctors now receive all their training, and it is also where the medicines are manufactured. The period of training before one qualifies as a Tibetan doctor is for a minimum of seven years. For the student to understand the medical texts a knowledge of Tibetan linguistics, grammar and poetry is required. The first four years of training are taken up with studying

34

Traditions

the four main medical tantras, or rGyudbzhi; they are the root tantra, the exegetical tantra, the oral tradition tantra containing methods and instructions, and finally the subsequent tantra. In the fifth year students take exams both oral and written on these four tantras. For the sixth and seventh years students are sent for practical training under a senior and experienced doctor at one of the branches of the Tibetan Medical and Astrological institute. In the moment there are now over 30 branches in India and Nepal, and in addition to this there are a number of private clinics. Tibetan medicine still survives in Tibet where the Chinese have destroyed so much of the Tibetan tradition and culture. It has survived because of their great practical help for them. Tibetan medicine is one of the five major sciences, and it is called gSoba Rig-pa, the science of healing. It uses different kinds of ingredients such as herbs, trees, rocks, resins, soils, precious metals, saps etc. However, 95% of Tibetan medicine is based on herbs, and precious metals are used for the seven kinds of precious pill known as Rinchen rilpo. If the physician is able to make the right diagnosis and administer the right medicine, then Tibetan medicine is good for all kinds of illness. However, it has been particularly successful in its treatment of chronic diseases such as rheumatism, arthritis, ulcers, chronic digestive problems, asthma, hepatitis, eczema, liver problems, sinus problems, anxiety and problems connected with the nervous system. The basic theory of Tibetan medicine is to keep in balance the Nyipa sum - they are rLung (pronounced loong), mKhris-pa and Bad-kan. The long-term causative factors of Nyipa sum are the three poisons of desire, hatred and delusion which show how closely connected Tibetan medicine is with Buddhist philosophy. Please refer you in appended to have more information about three poisons of desire.

Figure 3.13: Buddha Vaiduryaprabha

3.8 Games - Sports Among Tibetan children the most popular traditional games are takchom (acrobatic skipping), with singing, and tepe, which is similar to the American game hacky-sack. A tepe is usually made either out of a small slab of metal with a hole in which feathers are fixed, or sand wrapped in a piece of cloth. The objective of the game is to keep the tepe in the air for as long as possible using only the inside of the foot and ankle. A favorite adult pastime among Tibetan

3.9 Media

35

refugees is a dice game called sho. It is played by two or more people and consists of two dice, cowrie shells, and a set number of markers for the respective players. The players roll the dice by slamming down a cup with the dice inside while voicing loud, often poetic, exclamations. Tibetan refugees also have adopted some of the games of their host countries, such as soccer, basketball, volleyball, and cricket. Archery is common in some areas of Tibet; archery contests are held in a few refugee settlements in India.

3.9 Media Press Tibet’s first newspaper, the lithographed Vernacular Tibetan News began publication in Lhasa in 1907. More recently, the Tibet Daily began publication in April 1956 to be followed by the Tibet Science and Technology News, Lhasa Evening News, Tibet Youth Daily, Xigaze News, Tibet Radio and Television Guide and Tibet legal System News Currently, 15 newspapers are officially published, along with 36 periodicals, notably Tibetan Literature and Tibetan Literature and Arts. On january 1 1959, it officially began broadcasting in Tibetan and Chinese under the name "Tibetan People’s Radio." Today, it’s getting more and more developed. "Shannan People’s Radio" is a another famous one. According to Chinese press, Three-fourths of Tibetans now have access to TV and radio services thanks to the rapid development of the services in the vast and yet sparsely populated region. This optimistic statistic is not shared by every body. We notice that according to some Tibetans, Chinese TV stations impose rules which forbid the display of His Holiness the Dalai Lama, or of the Tibetan flag. On March 2004, Chinese authorities have launched a political reeducation program at an official television station in the Tibetan capital of Lhasa after it broadcast shots containing the Tibetan national flag, which is banned under Chinese rule. The offending footage was broadcast around 8 p.m. Feb. 21, the first day of new year in the Tibetan calendar, by Lhasa-based Tibet TV3. It showed a Tibetan man in the Nepalese capital Kathmandu with a huge Tibetan national flag behind him. The program was titled "Wonders of the Earth," a source familiar with the incident. Sources close to the incident say the footage was broadcast inadvertently after a member of the news staff of Chinese ethnicity failed to identify the flag in the background. The image was broadcast for just under five seconds. A retired member of the television station staff spotted the flag and reported to Tibetan Autonomous Region (TAR) television authorities that it had been broadcast, sources said. The program sparked an outcry among Chinese officials. The director of Tibet TV3 were demoted but no one was detained. They were told to acknowledge their mistake at a meeting at the TAR Department of Information and Communication, sources said. Most of the junior staff at the station were ethnic Han Chinese, working part-time. All staff must now undergo re-education and write self-criticisms acknowledging their error This situation is just one example among so much more, and it contradicts the optimistic speech of the Chinese authorities.

3.10 Literature The development of a Tibetan written script is credited to a monk by the name of Tonmi Sambhota and corresponded with the early introduction of Buddhism during the reign of King Songtsen Gampo. Accordingly, pre-Buddhist traditions were passed down as oral histories that

36

Traditions

told of the exploits of early kings and the origins of the Tibetan people. Some of these oral traditions were later recorded using the Tibetan script. But for the most part literature in Tibet was dominated by Buddhism; first as a means of translating Buddhist scriptures from Sanskrit into Tibetan; and second, as time went by, in association with the development of Tibetan Buddhist thought. There is nothing in the nature of a secular literary tradition - least of all novels - such as can be found in China or Japan. One of the great achievements of Tibetan culture was the development of a literary language that could, with remarkable faith-fulness, reproduce the concepts of Sanskrit Buddhist texts. The compilation of Tibetan-Sanskrit dictionaries in the early 9th century ensured consistency in all subsequent translations. Alongside Buddhist scriptures exists an ancient tradition of storytelling, usually concerning the taming of Tibet’s malevolent spirits to allow the introduction of Buddhism. Many of these stories were passed from generation to generation orally, but some were recorded. Examples include the Gesar epic and the story of Guru Rinpoche, who is said to have been bom in a lotus in the ancient kingdom of Swat before coming to Tibet and performing countless miracles to prepare the land for the diffusion of Buddhism. Through the 12th and 13th centuries, Tibetan literary endeavour was almost entirely consumed by the monumental task of translating the complete Buddhist canon into Tibetan. The result was the 108 volumes of canonical texts (Kangyur), which record the words of the Historical Buddha, Sakyamuni (Sakya Thukpa), and 208 vol-umes of commentary (Tengyur) on the Kangyur by Indian masters that make up the basic Buddhist scriptures shared by all Ti-betan religious orders. What time was left from this was used in the compilation of bi-ographies and the collection of songs of revered lamas. Perhaps most famous among these is the Hundred Thousand Songs of Milarepa; Milarepa was an ascetic to whom many songs and poems concerning the quest for buddhahood are attributed. Wood-block printing has been in use in Tibet for centuries and is still the most common form of printing in monasteries. Blocks are carved in mirror image; printers then work in pairs putting strips of paper over the inky block and shuttling an ink roll over it. The pages of the text are kept loose, wrapped in cloth and stored along the walls of monas-teries. Tibet’s most famous printing presses were in Derge in modern-day Sichuan, at Nartang Monastery and at the Potala. Very little of the Tibetan literary tradition has been translated into English. Translations that may be of interest include The Tibetan Book of the Dead, a mysterious but fascinating account of the stages and visions that occur between death and rebirth; The Jewel Ornament of Liberation, which describes the path to enlightenment as seen by the chief disciple of Milarepa and founder of the Kagyupa order; and The Life of Milarepa, the autobiography of Tibet’s most famous ascetic.

Chapter 4 Testimony 4.1 Non Tibetan 4.1.1 Tibet is dying out A French man, who wants to remain anonymous, sends us this testimony which accuses. He is back from a trip in Tibet brought under Chinese influence by force. The country looses its identity, its culture, and its soul. In a total lack of concern of all nations, Tibet is dying. I am back from Tibet. It was my third stay and probably the last one until that the situation gets better. In 1997, after a travel at Kalasha mount, I thought that nothing would kill Tibetans’ soul. This time, my appreciation will be much more nuanced. What I could notice is the negative evolution of Tibet in three years. First, Chinese are everywhere. From the Zangmu border, include Tingri, Sakya, Shigatse or Gyantse, they are everywhere. At Sakya, a holly place, they also built block of flats without any soul, with blue colored windows and white tiled walls. It is awfully unbeautiful. At Tashilumpo monastery, we saw a Tibetan festival under the Chinese officers control. Our tickets, taken the morning, were valid for the spectacle, in condition of paying ten yuans more: the monk at the entry refused our tickets and asked for paying again. When we replied that wasn’t true, he took his talky-walky and called the Chinese policemen, ("China police", as he howled so well). At Lhassa, during the visit of some monasteries, spies were there, looking after every our move. Video are everywhere, as well as the officers. On the stall in Lhassa, I haven’t noticed until now plate sets with the effigy of Mao. Now, they are ˇ showed at the night displayed. Besides, the "Tibetan" TV channel which is diffused in ChineseE. a "cultural report" on Tibet: I saw military parades in front of the Potola and the worst was when the report took place in a Tibetan village. A team equipped with projectors, screen and videos, showed to sat down Tibetans a film ( of indoctrination) which reminded Mao’s great actions : no ˇ In short, Chinese doubt that this mean aims for liberating Tibetan spectators’ mind once againE!.

38

Testimony

take the place in his control. What I notice is the marginalization of Tibetan people in their own country. I say Marginalization because the majority of the population are Chinese and, logically, Tibetans are minority. I say marginalization because Chinese have for example asked sellers of Barkhor to go somewhere else; now sellers are at five hundreds meters from Barkhor. A Tibetan friend of mine, a woman whom I met in 1998 and I saw again at Lhassa on her stall gave me the explanation: " I’m here because Chinese policemen asked me to stay here, Mindou, gyami yakpo mindou !". At least, it would probably be the end of these shops. I say marginalization because camps are going near of the villages and Tibetan children become beggars along the roads. It’s true that tourists who go to Tibet maintain this situation. I say marginalization because nothing in Lhassa reminds the soul and the spirit of the past Tibet. Monasteries are soulless, monks make business, visits have a limited interest as the crowd is pressing: the Potola, Drepung, Sera, Tashilumpo etc are like windows displays which yield a profit for Chinese who are controlling everything. I say marginalization because as a symbolic way, sellers of khatas in Lhassa are exclusively Chinese: I scolded French people who were buying some khatas to these Chinese in order to offer them to their friends in France, as a symbol of Tibet. They finally listened to me and gave back these khatas. I say marginalization of a nation which in the short term, will stop existing, because new generations come in a Chinese world and soon, maybe in one or two decades, they will not have any landmark according to their culture of origin. All hatreds will gone and nothing of the traditional Tibet will subsists. There is just a glimmer of hope among these distressing facts, some young people are ready to speak. I have learnt from them that some festivals have been forbidden, the life condition for Tibetans is really hard, Chinese do everything they want and interrogate every person suspected of not collaborating. These people who want to talk are still waiting for a solution which could only at political level. Because, according to them, "The keen interest for Buddhism and for the folklore which is linked to it can’t lead to a correct solution". I saw and felt a Tibetan in anger, a Tibetan at the point of death, a decadent Tibetan. One week after my coming back, I felt sick probably because of suppressing my anger after what I saw. Many of us consider that it is too late now to save Tibet. Many of us consider that the Dalai Lama, as charismatic leader, must do something in which Tibet is the epicenter, something which aims at the entire world, the peace in the world. He must from our point of view, stand as a leader as Gandhi, or Martin Luther King did, except that these ones looked for a solution in their own country whereas the Dalai Lama is outside of his country. We organized a debate around a table, a letter would be sent to His Holly. The barely few

4.2 Tibetan

39

Tibetans which was present in this debate protested that the Dalai-Lama had ever done many things and that, considered at a politic level, the Dalai Lama hasn’t got any influence. But an unilateral action of him, would probably put people in front of their own responsibility. It is time to act if it isn’t too late. As for young Tibetans in exile for example at Katmandou, it would be the time to take conscience that alcohols, night clubs and bars will not be an help for their country which they say that they haven’t forgotten. But how pathetic face do they show at the morning in the streets, drunk and staggering! Of course, I can or I should say we can give the evidences of what I said. So I think that the Dalai Lama will not able to put these young people in the right way and these Tibetans can’t fight for their country. Only the unilateral solution of a man who stands as a leader not only for people but also for a cause is possible. It is the conviction of many intellectuals or people who are concerned of world problems. May this speech show a message. Since a couple of time I have met a Tibetan twenty years old young woman who left Tibet in 1992, cut out her family, alone with her life and her untold burden. As bad luck would have it her employer is Chinese and as she told me: " her office is same as a jail; she can’t phone; she can’t go out; she works for many hours everyday." When I was in front of Jowo, giving as a offering the khata which that friend of mine had given me at Katmandou, I wondered: " What am I going to say to K about the situation of her country, when I come back? Can I tell her the truth?" Lying would be to betray her. I only made her to listen my testimony. It was enough for making her cry. Tibet is dying out, I feels to say (with regret, of course) that it is already died. We can’t stand with talking any more, we must react and the first one who should do it is His Holly the Dalai Lama. we are many to think so, we hope to give this message to His Holly himself. I would come to Tibet only if something happens or eventually for a report with motivated journalists. It is interesting to notice that in my group nine people among twenty nine , in an other words , almost a third of the group was anonymous journalists. Perhaps they are going to do like me , make a testimony. It is a denatured, blighted Tibet and marginalized Tibetans I saw. In three years, the metamorphose is total. In Lhassa, there is three hundreds thousands of people but thanks to the increase of infrastructures, it will probably have more than a million of habitants who will be Chinese for 90% of them. Now, we can admit that it there is no sense to say "a travel into Tibet", we have to say "travel into China" when we go to the Roof of the world.

4.2 Tibetan 4.2.1 Why I had to leave Tibet when I was ten years old, by Tsering Dolkar Tsering Dolkar is a student from the Tibetan Children Village (TCV) of Dharamsala. She explains why she had the obligation to leave Tibet when she was ten years. My name is Tsering Dolkar, I am 18. I was born in Tibet, at Lhassa, but I am studying in

40

Testimony

India. I am not having lived in Tibet because of the repression which is made by the Red Chinese people. In this testimony, I will tell you a bit my life and the reasons why I am still in India , instead of being in my dear country, the Tibet. I am very proud of the precious offer that I am made to put my story on line. When I was in Tibet, I was ten years old and I went to the primary school, at the fifth grade. At that time, I heard the slogan "Free Tibet" pronounced many times. One day, a friend of mine who was two years younger than me ask me to stick up public notices which contain the words "Free Tibet" on a wall in front of the Tsuglhakhang monastery and on a door , near my school which is situated close to the ambassade of China. the misfortune was that we were caught by a policeman who saw us sticking up the notices. He took us to the police station at nine o’clock PM. He interrogated the boy first and asked him some questions about me. He was so scared that he told my name to the policeman. My mother, who was informed, came then and passed out. The same night, some policemen took me to the place where we had put up the notices. They forced me to stick up notices, when they filmed me with a video. Then, they took me again to the jail where the chief of the police scolded me because of what I had done. During three days, we were kept into the jail giving us only water for drinking and a bit of bread as meal, once a day. Policemen even didn’t allow my parents to see us and treated us hardly. Fortunately, neighborhood’s people who had learnt our story asked that we have to be free, which was done three days later. The director of my school was very friendly to Chinese, so he became excessively strict toward me and forgave me to join to the other schoolmates. I was "quarantined". When my parents understood the siyuation, they decided that I had to leave Tibet and they joined me to the Tibetan Children Village (TVC) of Dharamsala. If I can be at present very proud of myself, it is thanks to my big family of the Village, the TVC. The TVC is a garden decorated by beautiful flowers. These flowers are the coming seeds of my country and one day we will find the freedom for our country. LONG LIFE TO THE DALAI-LAMA! MAY PEACE WINS ON THE EARTH! OUR VILLAGE IS A NEST OF LOVE, A PARADISE IN THIS LIFE! MODEST AS OUR VILLAGE IS, IT COSTS MORE THAN GOLD BECAUSE IT IS PROTECTED BY OUR MOTHER JETSUN PEMA LA. LONG LIVE FREE TIBET !

4.2 Tibetan

41

Tsering Dolkar

4.2.2 The school of tears, by Takho Takho , a correspondent of BuddhaLine, is at Katmandou. She tells us her hard years spent in a Chinese school. born in Tibet from where I had to run away in 1993, I would want to share some of my memories of my lifetime in Tibet with you. As you know, there are three provinces in Tibet and my family come from the Ngawa district of the province of Amdo. Amdo is very big and divided into several regions. In our region, Chinese are numerous and as a result, Tibetans from Amdo speak Chinese better than people from other provinces. In our region, there are many schools, but most of them are Chinese, only four are Tibetan. And people rarely send their children in a Tibetan school because the qualification which is obtained there can’t give us the possibility to have a good job later. Parents, even if they are Tibetan, prefer their children joining in a Chinese school, this is the case of my parents who registered me for Chinese school without any pleasure. But it was the only possibility for me to have a great study, so I spent more than six years into a Chinese school. The school’s name was Chenkar Sho and they were as many Tibetan pupils as Chinese pupils. We were almost four hundreds, with around twenty teachers ( I don’t have the number into my head). It doesn’t matter if pupils were Chinese or Tibetan, all of them had to speak Chinese. It was very sad because if we, Tibetans, spoke Tibetan between us, and were heard by a teacher, a warning was given us and we were punished. And what hurt me the most was to see many Tibetan teachers who never talk to us in Tibetan and scolded us and even punished us if they learnt that one of us had spoken in Tibetan. In these schools, there is a very important discrimination between pupils according to the family’s origin. The most respected, pupils for who is shown great consideration, have got parents who are officers in the Chinese army. But pupils like me who come from the next village are disliked. Beside, in that time my grandfather went into self-imposed exile, I was used to say that my grandfather is Chinese’s enemy. When I was young, I didn’t really understand what kind of activities my grandfather and my family did but I cried because of the discrimination which I was the victim. Fortunately, after six years in that school of tears, my parents sent me in India. And when I came to the TCV (Tibetan Children Village), how shame I felt for not being able to speak The Tibetan of Lhassa! I only knew the dialect of Amdo mixed with Chinese. Fortunately, one of the teachers of TCV Ghawng Dolma, who was my teacher of Tibetan, spoke also Chinese very well. So we could speak in Chinese and thanks to her, I learnt to speak perfectly Tibetan.

42

Testimony

So for eight years in the school of TCV, I spent all my effort to improve the Tibetan language and culture as well as Buddhism and history. I also learnt English which is useful right now. The Hindi language didn’t enjoy me a lot but, as it was compulsory until the eighth grade, I also learnt Hindi. But Chinese is still the subject which I am the most brilliant. I can speak fluency. Even if I don’t like Chinese, I would like to improve myself on it because in the future, this language will become very strategic. Takho

Conclusion After exploring the geography, history, and culture of Tibet you have a deeper understanding of the land and its people. You have noticed how particular the geographical situation of Tibet is, and how it has affected the way Tibetans live. You have seen how Tibet has been transformed through the age and particularly recently due to Chinese occupation. You have discovered how deep the influence of other countries on Tibetan way of living is. You have learned about the importance of religion in Tibetans life and how it is affecting their customs and all forms of art. As far as we are concerned, we have marvelled at the diversity and richness of Tibetan art and traditions... All these studies and researches could have lessened our desire to learn more about Tibet. However, it has only amplified it. We learned that we can always learn more about this mysterious and fascinating country and we all wish we will one day have the chance to meditate peacefully on the snowy ROOF OF THE WORLD.

Bibliography [1] the tibetan flag. http://www.tibet.com, 2003. [2] Tibetan games. http://www.tibetanculture.org, 2003. [3] Tibetan recipe. http://asiarecipe.com/tibet.html, 2003. [4] Religion. www.travelchinaguide.com/cityguides/tibet/religious-symbol.htm, 2004. [5] Tibet autonomous region. www.travelchinaguide.com/cityguides/tibet.htm, 2004. [6] Géo magazine, (54), August 1983. [7] OCLC Public Affairs. Agricultural aid (april 2002). www.pais.org, 2002. [8] Tibet Computer Resource Centre. www.Tibet.net, 2001.

Tibet’s environment and development issues.

[9] Tsering Dolkar. Why i had to leave tibet when i was ten years old. www.buddhaline.net, 2004. translated in English by the Tibet team. [10] Columbia University Press Group. Tibet econnomy. The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, 6th ed, 2003. [11] Amit Gurbaxani. Religious repression. www.journalism.uts.edu.au/ subjects/oj1/oj1_a2002/Tibet/religious.html, 2nd September 1996. [12] Jytte Hansen. Exploring the mandala. http://www.graphics.cornell.edu/online/mandala/, 1999. [13] Asian inf staff. Tibet’s economy. www.asianinfo.org, 2000. [14] lonely panet edition, editor. lonely planet guide of tibet. lonely panet publication, lonely planet guide of tibet edition, 2004. [15] Microsoft, editor. Encarta Encyclopedie. Microsoft corporation, 2003. [16] Lonely planet. Tibet. www.lonelyplanet.com, 2003. [17] Ron Schwartz. Religious persecution in tibet. www.tibet.ca/pub/persecution.htm, 1999.

46

BIBLIOGRAPHY

[18] simon Ganiere. La médecine tibétaine. http://membres.lycos.fr/freetibet/culture/medecine.html, 2003. [19] Tibet Support Group UK. Abuse of www.tibet.org/Activism/Rights/religion.html, 2004.

religious

freedoms

in

tibet.

Part II Annexes, Additionnal documents and photography

Appendix A Interview: Thupten Gyatso Interview of the may first 2004 in Trocadero, Paris Intervewers: Jean Sébastien NATCHIA-KOUAO, Patrick LAZZARONI, Joseph MAHAUT and Alain PEZDIR Interviewee: Mr Thupten Gyatso, president of the Tibetan community in France. We wanted to meet some Tibetans, however we would never have expected that we were about to meet the president of the Tibetan community in France. He accepted to answer some of our questions. In addition, he left us his phone number and email address so we can contact him to ask further questions. Team Tibet Esiee:Hello Sir, we are honoured to meet you. How much time you have been staying in France so far? Thupten Gyatso:HelloEˇ since 1998; thus it’s been six years so far. Beforehand, I went in India to learn English. Team Tibet:We wanted to meet some Tibetan people so we can get a truthful commentary about what is said on TV, newspaper and on the internet. Among other things we read an article about a Tibetan who was saying that Tibetans do not really feel at home anymore in Tibet and that he was living under the pressure of the Chinese government. Could you give us you opinion concerning this subject? Thupten Gyatso:For the six hundred Tibetans who live under the colonisation and Chinese occupation, this is the daily reality. I will answer you point by point. For example when we talk about the Tibetan problem, in France, we usually refer to existent sources; but what is finally the reel question of this problem? You do know that China invaded Tibet; we have to keep that in mind. However it does not have the right, neither to possess nor to dictate its ambition to the neighbouring countries. China is a giant who goes counter to international rights and the respect of the sovereignty of each country.

50

Interview: Thupten Gyatso

Team Tibet:Can you be more precise. Thupten Gyatso: China is communist by its composition. Its constitution was inspired by Russia and Yugoslavia. However, it doesn’t respect human’s right. Today, Tibetans suffer from Chinese occupation. In Lhassa, a Tibetan can’t even say that Tibet is free because this could cost him 10 to 20 years of jail! Even claiming the acknowledgement of their right is considered like an offence. They keep an eye on the culprit; they spy at his family and all his contacts. All these things are not a legend; it is the reality that Tibetans have to face all days of their lives. Team Tibet Esiee:We heard that even the Tibetan language itself is prohibited in the streets; is that right? Thupten Gyatso: I don’t think we can talk about " Tibetan language ", when it is not even recognised by those in power. Tibetan is spoken between the members of a family, or between friends. It is like a custom. And it doesn’t cause us any problems because they can’t put a policeman to spy at each person in his house. Team Tibet Esiee: You mean, Tibetan language is not even taught at school in Tibet? Thupten Gyatso: In some school, they do teach it; but it is very rudimentary. They don’t teach much more than the alphabet. Can we talk about a good education system when the home language is not even taught in Universities? I don’t think so. Tibetans have considered for centuries their language as an existing linguistic patrimony; but since Chinese have arrived half a century ago, nothing has been taught in Tibetan. Team Tibet Esiee:According to you, is Tibetan language about to totally disappear? Thupten Gyatso: I don’t think so because we all make efforts to speak in Tibetan at home even if it’s dangerous. For instance, 2 weeks ago in the north east region, a nomadic shepherd started singing in Tibetan while his was keeping his sheep. He was arrested. While his song was not even a politic song, he was put in jail. This is today’s daily life in Tibet. A representative of ONU came in Tibet and denounced the situation last year. They ask China to let Tibetans learn their language with dignity; but nothing has changed. Team Tibet Esiee:Are there other cultural things which are forbidden? Thupten Gyatso:It is absolutely forbidden to be in possession of a picture of the Dalai Lama who is our highest spiritual guide. If one is caught in possession of such a picture he put in jail and tortured. Team Tibet Esiee:What about as far as politic is concerned?

51

Thupten Gyatso: Tibetans don’t have any right over there. Nobody votes. People in power were not elected by the population but directly designated by the communist party. There is no respect for human’s rights. Team Tibet Esiee:Then, what is Tibetan population asking for? Thupten Gyatso: First, Tibetans don’t want the destruction of China, they don’t want war. What we ask is our right of autodetermination, of chosing our political future. Decisions concerning the future of Tibet must be the result of Tibetans free will. Today, we shouldn’t be in a world of colonialisms and slavery anymore. At this point of the 21st century, we are dreaming of a world of solidarity, where everybody can enjoy his right. Here is what we are asking for. We want Chinese tyranny to disappear from Tibet; we want Chinese to let us manage our interests and our country by ourselves. Team Tibet Esiee: You seam to have neither rancour nor anger against Chinese. Am I right? Thupten Gyatso: We can’t opt for extreme political point of view. his holiness The Dalai Lama advocate the voice of the middle1 . Sure, China is today the adversary of Tibet. But it can become an economic, commercial and even strategic partner for the Tibet of tomorrow, when it will be free. We can’t be angry at a country or a population. Chinese people look for economic prosperity, they want to have a place in the world; we want the same thing. There is nothing about revolution and noting extraordinary. Team Tibet Esiee:You are actually doing a hunger strike for the liberation of the youngest politic prisoner of the world: The Panchen Lama. Why was he put in jail? Thupten Gyatso : The Panchen Lama has always been a person recognized to be the reincarnation of an important Buddhist master. This is an important aspect of Buddhism in Tibet; Tibet is the only place in Buddhist world where it goes this way. When Tibet was free and independent before 1950, it had its own tradition and rituals; the only person entitled to recognise a reincarnation was the Dalai Lama. The 10 last reincarnation of the Panchen Lama were recognised as so; this is about the history. For the 11th reincarnation of the Panchen Lama, Chinese were opposed to the designation of the young "Gendhun Choekyi Nyima" who was 6 years old in May 1995. They justify themselves by saying that Tibet was still under Chinese occupation and then decided to draw lots to design the new Panchen Lama. Finally they designed a Chinese kid of their choice. However, this is unacceptable for us, the Panchen Lama possess in Tibet the most important spiritual statute just after the Dalai Lama himself. But he doesn’t have any political role. This was just a way for Chinese to legitimate their colonisation. They want to sow confusion among the Tibetan population and the Diaspora. But the Diaspora is very well informed and knows what they are doing. What they do is very grave because they violate the 1

onciliatory and none violent way of being with the intention of promoting a pacific coexistence between populations and cultures.

52

Interview: Thupten Gyatso

right to the cult and the international convention concerning the right of children as well; They put this child in jail and he has been enclosed there for 9 years with his parents. They want to control us physically and mentally. Team Tibet Esiee:Do you know how is perceived Tibet by the French People? Thupten Gyatso : When I questioned my French friends, according to them Tibet represented the mountains, and the monks. It is true, there are all that in Tibet, that belonged to its culture, but there are also cities, people, like everywhere. But these people suffer. Nations will organize a referendum concerning the future. We do not want to impose any political or cultural solution already done, but let the interested people take their destiny in hand. I think that it is realizable. Team Tibet Esiee :According to you, what retains China in Tibet? Thupten Gyatso : The interests, the stakes are strategic, economic and demographic. When it is said that Tibet is recognized like the roof of the world, it is a reality, it is not poetry. Of because of its geographical position, it dominates all Asia. It is the source of rivers which feed millions of inhabitants in Vietnam, Laos, Kampuchea for example. There are also many mineral springs of gold and coal in others, and oil. One can say that Tibet is the second Middle-East of the Central Asia. Thus the stake is enormous. Moreover Tibet a surface which is five times bigger than France’s one for only six million Tibetans. Thus there is space even if the climatic conditions are hostile. We thus have also a culture which is known and admired throughout the world, if China remains at our head, it will benefit from the praise of this culture. In fact Tibet doesn’t take advantage of the Chinese occupation. Everything is carried out in a single direction. They treat us like savages, people who do not think, and they want to assemble us the ones against the others. Exactly as in the other colonial systems in Africa or Latin America. Team Tibet Esiee :Indeed on some Internet sites, the Chinese affirm that the Tibetans are savages. Thupten Gyatso : You know, one can always criticize a nation’s cultures. For example in France, you eat seafood, because you are adapted to your environmental medium. In Tibet, there is no sea, and we do not eat especially seafood. But they are only stereotypes, in fact there is nothing reproachable in your behaviour. The Chinese eat dogs for example, or insects. Us, we don’t eat that, every man to his tradition. The term savage is wrong employed in this case. Team Tibet Esiee :Are there cultural elements or practices that you can’t understand in France since you’ve been living here? Thupten Gyatso : I do not feel any particular embarrassment in France. Here we are well treated. Since I am there, I always lived among French people. I know that it is not easy for everyone because it is hard to obtain a political asylum. Me, I do not have to complain. Here I

53

never suffered from racism. I note that in Europe, the social and Political system is very open, but the individuals are very closed. That shocks me. There is in France a system of ideological values installation: Freedom, Equality, Fraternity. But when it is necessary to speak to somebody in the subway when he goes badly for example, one does not even look at it. If one attends an aggression, one does not even intervene. These are examples that I find sad, because the individual dimension of this society is too much accentuated on the United States’ one. People behave as independent individuals, autonomous, only focusing on their own future, and narrowing their cultural mink, because there are many troubles, anguish, personal problems. Finally, one forgets oneself and one does not worry enough about the misfortune of the others, other continents. Thus I reproach the Western culture for being a little too individualistic. But it is not despairing, there are interesting people, there are people who help themselves. Support we can’t obtain is provided by associations, it is very significant, it should be recognized. But above all, my general feeling is a feeling of satisfaction in France. Team Tibet Esiee : What led the Tibetan community to come to France? You did not speak the same language as us, therefore why to have chosen this country? Thupten Gyatso : Firstly, there never was historical relationship with France, concerning colonialism. There were some visits of Tibetan delegations in Paris, but it was nothing remarkable. You know, there cannot be many Tibetans here. We are a small community. There cannot be an influence which pushes the Tibetans to come here in masses, because there is no historical ratio. And then the geographical distance is a considerable factor. We do not have the sea, we must travel by the plane if we want to leave for Europe. With this intention, it is necessary to go to India or to Nepal. And then everyone does not dream to go to France because there are already larger communities elsewhere: in Canada for example, they are 5000, just like in the United States. They are 1000 in Belgium, 4000 in Switzerland, and 300 in France. Thus we are the smallest community Tibetans of Europe. There is nothing to attract the Tibetans in mass. In India they are 120000, in Nepal 30000. Team Tibet Esiee : And what about going back to Tibet? Thupten Gyatso : If I go back? Well I will be put in prison. Because I went to India, because I fought for Dalai LAMA. I will be regarded as a freedom fighter. Thus my life will be threatened if I go back there. I left India because the Tibetans who arrived there after 1979 don’t have a legal statute. The government closes the eyes on clandestinity. But one does not have a Social Security cover. Here one can have a legal name, work, exist socially. By staying in India, one is dubious on our fate. Me I came to France, it was not planned, but I am there. Team Tibet Esiee :What do you about France from Tibet? Thupten Gyatso : We know only very little thing concerning France. It is known that there is the Eiffel Tower and that it belongs to the five world powers. There is little documentation, little information, and it is a pity.

54

Interview: Thupten Gyatso

Team Tibet Esiee : Do the Tibetans feel good in France? Thupten Gyatso : Completely. The majority of them have their situation, they have a work, even those which do not speak French well. They are engaged by small family companies, and all that within a legal framework. We are not the saddest people. Team Tibet Esiee : Are some not tourist restaurants mainly intended for Tibetan costumers? Thupten Gyatso : No. The community is too small. With its 300 people, the possible restaurant would not even have the guarantee to find one person per evening. It is not like the great Chinese community or the Vietnamese’s one. When we arrived, we sought to integrate us each one in our corner. We meet all for precise events, but we did not want to form a ghetto. One cannot define the Tibetans as a block. But when there are cultural activities, movements such as today, I contact them and we join together. The majority of the Tibetans practise mixed marriages. Some have been adopted , some have their political asylum, but we live all separated. We are very well integrated. On the other hand I know very appreciable Tibetans restaurants which I attend when I leave with my friends. I could advise you if you want it. It is less expensive than the French restaurant, but a little expensive than the Chinese restaurant. And they don’t propose a at will formula as one can see it in certain Vietnamese or Chinese restaurants. Team Tibet Esiee :In the name of all our group, we thank you Sir Thupten Gyatso for the moment that you nicely granted us, and for the provided information. Thupten Gyatso : It was a pleasure for me to inform you. Gandhi said Think globally, act generally. It is necessary to have a vision of the humane and planetary world. Today I have my own suffering with Tibet, but after I hope to mobilize myself, to fraternize with others to solve other problems in the world, as a new generation of the world to have new prospects of hope. We took some pictures with him and he gave us his visit card with his phone number and email address, affirming that it would be a pleasure of answering our possible additional questions. We signed the three petitions which they launched for the release of Panchen LAMA, Phuntsok Nyidron another political prisoner, and the release of Tibet. To finish, he invited us to celebrate with the Tibetan community Dalai LAMA’s birthday on July 04, very festive day opened to everybody where there will be traditional meals and exposures until the evening.

Appendix B Recipes B.1 Main Dishes B.1.1 Beef Momos Yield: 12 - 18 pcs Ingredients Dough • 3 c All purpose flour 1 c Water Meat Filling • 1 lb Extra lean ground beef • 1 ea Onion; chopped 1/2 lb Daikon, spinach or cabbage, -chopped fine • 1 Garlic clove; minced • 1 ts Fresh ginger; grated • 2 ea Green onion; chopped (white -and green both; no roots) • 2 tb Fresh cilantro; chopped • Salt Directions Mix flour and the water; knead and form into a ball. Let rise covered with a wet towel or plastic wrap for 30 min. Bring a large pot of water to the boil. Cut dough into 12 - 18 pieces and roll into small flat circles. Mash together all filling ingredients. Place a spoonful of filling on each dough circle, folding over and crimping to seal. Place momos in a steamer and steam on high for 30 min. Serve with a mild tomato salsa, Tsal, made from chopped tomatoes, cilantro, green onions and garlic, and/or Sriracha sauce and/or soy sauce. Recipe from Jigme Topgyal, a Tibetan. In his native Tibet, these would be made with a flour ground from roasted barley called Tsampa. The

56

Recipes

[alternate] filling usually is made with ground chicken mashed with onions, daikon, fresh ginger, garlic and cilantro. [A] Vegetarian filling contains chopped cabbage, bok choy, tofu, green onion, ginger and garlic.

B.1.2 Lamb Momos Yield: 12 servings Ingredients • 2 c All-purpose flour 3/4 c Hot water Momos Filling • 8 oz Lean ground lamb • 1/2 Onion, finely chopped • 1 c Chopped raw kale • 1/2 c Cilantro, chopped • 3 Cloves garlic, chopped • 1 tb Chopped fresh ginger • 1 1/2 ts Curry powder • 1 tb Sherry, vermouth or brandy • 2 ts Flour • 2 ts Soy sauce • 1/2 ts Cayenne pepper or 1/2 ts Hot chili paste

Khote Filling • 2 tb Butter • 1 Chopped onion • 3 Cloves garlic, chopped • 3 Jalapeno Peppers, Sliced • 1 ts Cumin 1 • 1/2 ts Curry powder • 1/2 ts Dry ground ginger

B.1 Main Dishes

57

• 1/2 ts Tumeric • 1 1/2 c Raw broccoli, chopped • 1/2 Red bell pepper, chopped • 1 1/2 c Mashed Baking Potatoes • 1/4 c Chopped cilantro • 2 tb Yogurt • Juice of 1/2 lime • Salt and Cayenne to taste • 1 Bunch Kale to line steamer Directions Dough: 1. Pour hot water over flour; mix with fork. When cool enough to handle, finish mixing with your hands until dough holds together. Wrap in plastic and refrigerate until chilled through. 2. Work one piece of dough at a time; pinch off a walnut-sized chunk, shape into a ball, knead several times, then roll flat on a floured board. 3. Place dough circle in the palm of your hand; in the middle of the dough, place about 1 tbsp filling. Bring up edges and seal at top with little gathers. Leave a tiny hole at top for steam to escape during cooking. 4. Line steamer or bottom of skillet with kale leaves. Top with a layer of dumplings and steam over boiling water 15 to 20 minutes. If using a skillet use just enough water to cushion the Momos; replenish water as needed. Serve immediately, pairing Momos with soy sauce, ginger, and vinegar. May also be served with Achar.

Momos Filling: Combine all ingredients. Khote Filling: • Melt butter in skillet. Add onion and garlic and cook over low heat until onion is limp. Add chiles and spices and cook a minute or two longer. • Add broccoli and red bell pepper. Cook until they are crisp-tender; then add mashed potatoes, cilantro, yogurt, lime, and salt and cayenne to taste.

58

Recipes

B.1.3 Shamday - Tibetan Curry Serves: 2 Preparation and Cooking time: 30 minutes Ingredients • 1 small Onion • 3 cloves of Garlic • 1 small piece of Ginger • 1 teaspoon of Salt • 1 Tomato • 2 large Potatoes • 1 teaspoon of Ground Tumeric • 1 small packet of Bean Thread Noodles • Lamb or Beef • 1 handful of Seaweed • Sesame Oil Directions Soak the bean thread noodles and the seaweed in cold water and leave for 10 minutes. Peel the potatoes and cut into cubes. Dice the meat into cubes. Vegetarians can substitute tofu (bean curd) for meat. Finely chop the onion, garlic and ginger. Directions Fry the onion, garlic and ginger in a deep sauce pan. Add the tumeric, salt and sesame oil. Stir well. Add the diced meat and potatoes. Stir well. Add 1 pint of cold water and cook for 20 minutes (Gas mark 4). Once the meat and potatoes are cooked take the bean thread and cut into small pieces, rinse the seaweed, add to the curry. Cook for another 5 minutes. Lastly, season to taste and add the tomato. Serve hot with boiled rice.

B.1.4 Tibetan Noodle Stew Serves 4 Ingredients • 2 cups cavatelli or other thin tube-shaped pasta • 1 Tbs. canola oil • 2 onions, thinly sliced (about 1 1/2 cups) • 8 garlic cloves, thinly sliced

B.1 Main Dishes

59

• 1 Tbs. minced fresh ginger • 4 oz lean lamb, thinly sliced (optional) • 2 tomatoes, cut into 1/4 inch dice • 4 cups Chicken Stock or Vegetable Stock • 3-4 Tbs. tamari or soy sauce • 2 tsp. hot paprika, or to taste • 4 cups stemmed, washed spinach leaves Directions 1. Cook the cavatelli in 4 quarts of boiling water until al dente, about 8 minutes. Drain in a colander, rinse with cold water until cool, and drain again. 2. Heat oil in a wok or large saucepan, preferably nonstick. Add the onions, garlic, and ginger and cook over medium heat until nicely browned, about 5 minutes. Stir in the lamb, if using, and tomatoes and cook until the lamb loses its rawness, about 2 minutes. 3. Stir in the stock, tamari or soy sauce, and paprika and bring to a boil. Reduce the heat and simmer the stew until richly flavored and the lamb is tender, 5 to 10 minutes. Stir in the cavatelli and simmer for 2 minutes. Stir in the spinach leaves and cook until wilted, about 1 minute. Correct the seasoning, adding tamari or paprika to taste.

B.1.5 Then Thuk - Noodle Soup Serves: 2 Preparation and Cooking time: 25 minutes Ingredients • 1 small Onion • 3 cloves of Garlic • 1 small piece of Ginger • 1 teaspoon of Salt • 1 small piece of Mouli Spinach (frozen or fresh) • lamb or beef • 1 table spoon of Soya Source • 2oz Plain Flour

60

Recipes

• 1 table spoon of Oil Directions Knead the plain flour into a dough using only cold water. Cover and leave for a while. Meanwhile, peel the mouli, cut it in half and slice thinly. Wash fresh spinach leaves and chop into large chunks. If frozen spinach is used defrost thoroughly. The amount used depends on presonal taste. Chop the onion, garlic and ginger. Cut the meat into strips and slice thinly. Fry the onion, garlic and ginger in a deep sauce pan. Add the meat and soya sauce. Stir well. Add two pints of cold water and the sliced mouli. While the water is boiling, take the dough and roll it thinly into a large chapati-like shape. Cut the dough into long strips 2 inches wide. Take the strips and tear them into small pieces. Throw the pieces straight into the boiling water. Cook for 5 minutes. Lastly, add the spinach and season to taste. Simmer for a few minutes. Serve hot.

B.1.6 Sherpa Momos Ingredients Meat Filling • 4 chicken breast halves, meat removed and minced • 2 minced onions • 5 cloves garlic (or to taste), diced • 1 large piece ginger to taste, diced • 1-2 tablespoons soy sauce • salt, paper and accent to taste • 1 teaspoon garam masala* optional • a little oil or ghee (clarified butter) to moisten Mix these ingredients together well

Vegetable Filling • onion, cabbage, green beans and cauliflower all finely chopped and lightly steamed or blanched until slightly limp, enough to make about 3-4 cups. season with minced garlic, ginger, soy sauce, salt and accent to taste, using the above recipes as guidelines • 1 teaspoon garam masala* optional • a little oil or ghee (clarified butter) to moisten Dough • 3-4 cups flour and enough cold water to make a smooth dough. Knead lightly and break off small pieces, rolling each into a thin round about 3 1/2 inches in diameter.

B.2 Deserts

61

Directions Put a heaping teaspoon of the filling in the middle of each dough round. Form the momo in any of the following traditional shapes, using one hand to pleat or pinch and the other to both hold the momo and keep the filling from oozing out: o 8-pleated half moon shape; o 6-pleated round shape, with the pleats in the center like a top- knot; o the 9-pleated half moon shape with the ends brought around to almost touch; or o the fluted half moon shape in which the ends have been brought around and pinched together to form a circle. Arrange on a steamer coated with vegetable oil spray and steam, covered l0-15 minutes. Serve with a dipping sauce. I like soy sauce mixed with a little rice vinegar and sugar or chilli paste.

B.2 Deserts B.2.1 Cream Cheese Barfi (Sweetened Cream Cheese Cake) Ingredients • 1.5 lb cream cheese • 1.5 lb sour cream • 1 can sweet condensed milk • 1/2 cup sugar • 1/3 cup sifted flour • 1/4 teaspoon baking powder • 1/4 teaspoon salt • 1/4 cup almonds, coarsely chopped • 1/4 cup cashews, coarsely chopped • 1/4 cup golden raisins • 1/4 cup coconut, coarsely chopped Directions In a food processor, combine cream cheese, sour cream, condensed milk, sugar, flour, baking powder, and salt to a smooth paste-like mixture. Pour into a large bowl. To the cream cheese mixture, add almonds, cashews, raisins, and coconut; fold in thoroughly. Butter a baking dish well and pour the mixture; smooth out the surface and bake at 325oF for 15 to 20 minutes, or until the top is lightly brown. Chill it overnight in refrigerator. To serve, cut into 2-in. cubes and top it with whipped cream.

62

Recipes

B.2.2 Sikarni (Spiced Sweet Yogurt-Pistachio Dessert) Ingredients • 4 cups regular yogurt • 2 cups sour cream • 1/4 cup double cream • 2 cups sugar • 1/2 tsp ground cinnamon • 1 teaspoon ground cardamom • 1/4 teaspoon ground nutmeg • 1 teaspoon saffron • 1 cup unsalted, shelled pistachio nuts, cut into thin slices Directions In a large bowl, mix yogurt and sour cream together. Pour the yogurt mixture into a large colander with a cheese cloth liner. Allow draining for about 12 hours. Transfer the mixture into a mixing bowl. Dissolve saffron in luke warm cream. To the yogurt mixture add sugar, cinnamon, black pepper, cardamom, nutmeg, dissolved saffron, and pistachio nuts; fold in thoroughly. Chill overnight in refrigerator. To serve, scoop a cup of chilled dessert into a serving plate, topped with a generous amount of unsalted, shelled, whole pistachio nuts.

B.2.3 Rasbari Dessert (Cheese Balls in Cream Syrup) Ingredients • 4 cups ricotta cheese • 2 cup cream cheese • 1 can sweet condensed milk • 2 cups sugar • 1/2 cup flour, sifted • 6 cups half-and-half milk

B.2 Deserts

63

• 1 teaspoon ground cardamom • 1 1/2 tablespoon rose water • 1 teaspoon saffron • 1/2 cup almonds, sliced into thin slivers Directions In a large bowl, combine ricotta cheese, cream cheese, flour, condensed milk, and 1 cup of sugar. Mix thoroughly to a smooth, stiff mixture. Make 1-in. balls and line them up on the bottom of a well-buttered baking pan. Bake in oven for 15-20 minutes at 325oF, or until the cheese balls are lightly browned. Transfer cooked cheese balls into a container. In a sauce pan, pour milk; add cardamom and saffron. Allow slow simmer, constantly stirring, until the milk has thickened into a syrupy consistency. Remove from heat. Pour cream syrup over the baked cheese balls. Add rose water and almonds slivers. Refrigerate overnight. Serve cheese balls with chilled cream syrup.

B.2.4 Khir (Himalayan Rice Pudding) Ingredients • 1 gallon whole milk • 2 cups cream • 1/2 cup butter • 1 cup basmati rice • 1 cup sugar • 5-6 cardamom, finely chopped • 1/4 cup coconut, coarsely shredded • 1/4 cup golden raisins • 1/2 cup cashews Directions In a large cooking pan, heat butter over low heat. Add rice and stir for 2-3 minutes. Pour milk into the rice mixture. Add cream and sugar; stir thoroughly. Bring to a boil and allow to simmer over low heat, stirring constantly, for about 20 minutes, or until the rice has softened. Add cardamom, coconut, raisins, and cashews; stir well. Cook for another 10 minutes, or until the rice is cooked soft and the mixture has thickened to consistency of your like. Chill the pudding overnight in refrigerator. Serve with handful of toasted cashews.

64

Recipes

B.2.5 Carrot Barfi (Carrot Fudge Dessert) Ingredients • 2 cups carrots, finely grated • 2 cups half-and-half milk • 1/2 cup butter • 1 cup sugar • 1 teaspoon ground cardamom • 1/2 cup almonds, thinly slivered • 1/2 cup golden raisins • 1/2 cup cashew nuts • A dash of red coloring Directions In a cooking pan, combine grated carrots and milk. Bring to a boil and simmer over low heat for an hour, until the carrot has softened. Add butter, sugar, cardamom, almonds, raisins, and cashews; mix thoroughly. Sprinkle a dash of red coloring and simmer the mixture, stirring continuously, for another 15-20 minutes until the carrot mixture has thickened. Remove from heat and transfer to a well-butter container; spread into a 2-in. thick layer. Chill overnight in refrigerator. Cut into 2-in. cubes. Serve chilled, topped with sliced almonds.

Appendix C Photography C.1 Landscape

Figure C.1: Shishapangma

66

Photography

Figure C.2: Mountain with prayer flags

Figure C.3: The prayer flags wave in the wind and make prayers as they move

68

Additionnal cultural information

Appendix D Additionnal cultural information D.1 Tibetan alphabet

Figure D.1: Tibetan alphabet

D.2 Tibetan flag

69

D.2 Tibetan flag D.2.1 History

Figure D.2: Tibetan flag The Tibetan national flag is intimately connected with the authentic history and royal lineage’s of Tibet which are thousands of years old. Furthermore, in the Tibetan Royal year 820 or in the seventh century of the Christian era, at the time of the Tibetan religious King Song-Tsen Gamp the Great extensive land of Tibet was divided into large and small districts known as gö-kyi tong-de and yung-g’i mi-de. From these large and small districts, an army of 2,860,000 men was chosen and stationed along the borders of Tibet, and the subjects thus lived in safety. The bravery and heroism of the Tibetan people at that time in conquering and ruling even the adjacent empire of China is well-known in world history. At that time, it is recorded that the regiment of Yö-ru tö had a military flag with a pair of snow-lions facing each other; that Yä-ru mä had a snow-lion with a bright upper border; that of Tsang Rulag, had a snow-lion standing upright, springing towards the sky; and the flag of ü-ru tö had a white flame against a red background, and so forth. In this way. the regiments of each area had its own individual military standard. Continuing with that tradition up to the beginning of the twentieth century, various regiments within the Tibetan army have had military flags with either a pair of snow-lions facing each other, or a snow-lion springing upwards and so forth. In the latter part of this period, during the rule of His Holiness the Great Thirteenth Dalaï Lama, this eminent spiritual and temporal ruler of Tibet enacted many modifications in administrative policies in accordance with international customs. Based on the formats of previous Tibetan military flags, His Holiness improved upon them and designed the present, modern national flag. With an official proclamation, He declared that this would be the uniform, standard flag to be adopted by all Tibetan military defence establishments. Since the time of that proclamation, all Tibetan regiments have likewise adopted this flag as their standard. The colour scheme of the Tibetan national flag gives a clear indication of all aspects of Tibet

70

Additionnal cultural information

in its symbolism such as the geographic features of the religious. snowy land of Tibet, the customs and traditions of Tibetan society, the political administration of the Tibetan government and so forth. History attests to the fact that Tibet is one of the most ancient nations of the world. Therefore, in all the three regions of Tibet, irrespective of caste and creed, this national flag inherited from our ancestors is universally accepted as a common, peerless treasure and even today still continues to be highly respected and esteemed as in the past.

D.3 An Explanation of the Symbolism of the National Flag of Tibet • In the centre stands a magnificent thickly snow clad mountain, which represents the great nation of Tibet, widely known as the Land Surrounded by Snow Mountains. • Across the dark blue sky six red bands spread representing the original ancestors of the Tibetan people: the six tribes called Se, Mu, Dong, Tong, Dru and Ra which in turn gave the [twelve] descendants. The combination of six red bands (for the tribes) and six dark blue bands for the sky represents the incessant enactment of the virtuous deeds of protection of the spiritual teachings and secular life by the black and red guardian protector deities with which Tibet has had connection for a very long time. • At the tip of the snow mountain, the sun with its rays brilliantly shining in all directions represents the equal enjoyment of freedom, spiritual and material happiness and prosperity by all beings in the land of Tibet. • On the slopes of the mountain there proudly stand a pair of snow lions blazing with the manes of fearlessness, which represent the country’s victorious accomplishment of a unified spiritual and secular life. • The beautiful and radiant three coloured jewel held aloft represents the ever-present reverence respectfully held by the Tibetan people towards the Three Supreme Jewels (the Buddhist objects of refuge: Buddha, Dharma and Sangha). • The two coloured swirling jewel held between the two lions represents the peoples’ guarding and cherishing the self discipline of correct ethical behaviour, principally represented by the practices of the ten exalted virtues and the 16 humane modes of conduct. • Lastly, the surrounding border of yellow adorning the perimeter represents the spread and flourishing in all directions and times of the purified gold like teachings of the Buddha.