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since the 1950s, as migrants from across Anatolia have moved in and city limits have expanded to accommodate them.[14][15] Arts, Music, Film and Cultural festivals were established at the end of the 20th century and continue to be hosted by the city today, and infrastructure improvements have produced a complex transportation network. Approximately 12.56 million foreign visitors arrived in Istanbul in 2015, five years after it was named a European Capital of Culture, making the city the world’s fifth most popular tourist destination.[16] The city’s biggest attraction is its historic center, partially listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site, and its cultural and entertainment hub can be found across the city’s natural harbor, the Golden Horn, in the Beyoğlu district. Considered a global city,[17] Istanbul has one of the fastest-growing metropolitan economies in the world.[18] It hosts the headquarters of many Turkish companies and media outlets and accounts for more than a quarter of the country’s gross domestic product.[19] Hoping to capitalize on its revitalization and rapid expansion, Istanbul bid for the Summer Olympics five times in twenty years.[20] Istanbul will bid for 2023 Summer Youth Olympics.

Istanbul (/ˌɪstænˈbuːl/ or /ˌiːstɑːnˈbuːl/;[7][8] Turkish: İstanbul [isˈtanbuɫ]), historically also known as Constantinople and Byzantium, is the most populous city in Turkey and the country’s economic, cultural, and historic center. Istanbul is a transcontinental city in Eurasia, straddling the Bosphorus strait between the Sea of Marmara and the Black Sea. Its commercial and historical center lies on the European side and about a third of its population lives on the Asian side.[9] The city is the administrative center of the Istanbul Metropolitan Municipality (coterminous[10] with Istanbul Province), both hosting a population of around 14 million residents.[4] Istanbul is one of the world’s most populous cities and ranks as world’s 6th-largest city proper and the largest European city.

Present-day Istanbul is a flourishing city, with a constantly growing skyline which is one of the most prominent in all of Europe and Western Asia. New developments are constantly being implemented including new metro lines, residential buildings and underground transportation projects such as the Marmaray Tunnel which is the deepest underground tunnel in the world. Along with these developments, the city is increasingly becoming the centre of operations for many international organizations such as the Organization of the Black Sea Economic Cooperation, Turkic Council and D-8 Organization for Economic Cooperation.

Founded under the name of Byzantium on the Sarayburnu promontory around 660 BCE, the city developed to become one of the most significant in history. After its reestablishment as Constantinople in 330 CE, it served as an imperial capital for almost 16 centuries, during the Roman and Byzantine (330–1204 and 1261–1453), the Latin (1204–1261), and the Ottoman (1453–1922) empires.[11] It was instrumental in the advancement of Christianity during Roman and Byzantine times, before 1 Toponymy the Ottomans conquered the city in 1453 and transformed it into an Islamic stronghold and the seat of the Ottoman Main article: Names of Istanbul Caliphate.[12] The first known name of the city is Byzantium (Greek: Istanbul’s strategic position on the historic Silk Road,[13] Βυζάντιον, Byzántion), the name given to it at its foundarail networks to Europe and the Middle East, and the only tion by Megarean colonists around 660 BCE.[1] The name sea route between the Black Sea and the Mediterranean is thought to be derived from a personal name, Byzas. have produced a cosmopolitan populace, although less Ancient Greek tradition refers to a legendary king of that so since the establishment of the Turkish Republic in name as the leader of the Greek colonists. Modern schol1923. Overlooked for the new capital during the interwar ars have also hypothesized that the name of Byzas was of period, the city has since regained much of its promi- local Thracian or Illyrian origin and hence predated the nence. The population of the city has increased tenfold Megarean settlement.[21] 1

2

2

HISTORY

Ottoman conquest of the city.[1]

Constantine I

After Constantine the Great made it the new eastern capital of the Roman Empire in 330 CE, the city became widely known as “Constantinopolis” (Constantinople), which, as the Latinized form of "Κωνσταντινούπολις" (Konstantinoúpolis), means the “City of Constantine”.[1] He also attempted to promote the name “Nova Roma” and its Greek version "Νέα Ῥώμη" Nea Romē (New Rome), but this did not enter widespread usage.[22] Constantinople remained the most common name for the city in the West until the establishment of the Turkish Republic, and Kostantiniyye (Ottoman Turkish ‫)قسطنطينيه‬ and İstanbul were the names used alternatively by the Ottomans during their rule.[23] The use of Constantinople to refer to the city during the Ottoman period (from the mid-15th century) is now considered politically incorrect, even if not historically inaccurate, by Turks.[24] By the 19th century, the city had acquired other names used by either foreigners or Turks. Europeans used Constantinople to refer to the whole of the city, but used the name Stamboul—as the Turks also did—to describe the walled peninsula between the Golden Horn and the Sea of Marmara.[24] Pera (from the Greek word for “across”) was used to describe the area between the Golden Horn and the Bosphorus, but Turks also used the name Beyoğlu (today the official name for one of the city’s constituent districts).[25] Islambol (meaning either “City of Islam” or “Full of Islam”) was sometimes colloquially used to refer to the city, and was even engraved on some Ottoman coins,[26] but the belief that it was the precursor to the present name, İstanbul, is belied by the fact that the latter existed well before the former and even predates the

The name İstanbul (Turkish pronunciation: [isˈtanbuɫ], colloquially [ɯsˈtambuɫ]) is commonly held to derive from the Medieval Greek phrase "εἰς τὴν Πόλιν" (pronounced [is tim ˈbolin]), which means “to the city”[27] and is how Constantinople was referred to by the local Greeks. This reflected its status as the only major city in the vicinity. The importance of Constantinople in the Ottoman world was also reflected by its Ottoman name 'Der Saadet' meaning the 'gate to Prosperity' in Ottoman. An alternative view is that the name evolved directly from the name Constantinople, with the first and third syllables dropped.[1] A Turkish folk etymology traces the name to Islam bol “plenty of Islam”[28] because the city was called Islambol (“plenty of Islam”) or Islambul (“find Islam”) as the capital of the Islamic Ottoman Empire. It is first attested shortly after the conquest, and its invention was ascribed by some contemporary writers to Sultan Mehmed II himself.[29] Some Ottoman sources of the 17th century, such as Evliya Çelebi, describe it as the common Turkish name of the time; between the late 17th and late 18th centuries, it was also in official use. The first use of the word “Islambol” on coinage was in 1703 (1115 AH) during the reign of Sultan Ahmed III. Nevertheless, the use of the name Constantinople remained common in English into the 20th century, Istanbul became common only after Turkey adapted the Latin alphabet in 1928 and urged other countries to use the city’s Turkish name.[30][31] The Vikings were sailing down the Russian rivers from the North Sea, entering the Black Sea and arriving in Constantinople around the 10th century. They used to call Constantinople “Miklagard”[32] meaning the “Big City”. In modern Turkish, the name is written as İstanbul, with a dotted İ, as the Turkish alphabet distinguishes between a dotted and dotless I. In English the stress is on the first syllable (Is), but in Turkish it is on the second syllable (tan).[33] A person from the city is an İstanbullu (plural: İstanbullular), although Istanbulite is used in English.[34]

2 History Main article: History of Istanbul See also: Timeline of Istanbul history Neolithic artifacts, uncovered by archeologists at the beginning of the 21st century, indicate that Istanbul’s historic peninsula was settled as far back as the 7th millennium BCE.[35] That early settlement, important in the spread of the Neolithic Revolution from the Near East to Europe, lasted for almost a millennium before being inundated by rising water levels.[36][37][38][39] The first human settlement on the Asian side, the Fikirtepe mound, is from the Copper Age period, with artifacts dating from 5500 to 3500 BCE,[40] On the European side, near the point of the peninsula (Sarayburnu), there was a Thracian settlement during the early 1st millennium BCE. Modern authors have linked it to the Thracian toponym Lygos,[41]

2.1

Rise and fall of Constantinople

3

Remains of a Byzantine column found at Byzantium's acropolis, located today within the Topkapı Palace complex

mentioned by Pliny the Elder as an earlier name for the site of Byzantium.[42] The history of the city proper begins around 660 BCE,[43][lower-alpha 1] when Greek settlers from Megara established Byzantium on the European side of the Bosphorus. The settlers built an acropolis adjacent to the Golden Horn on the site of the early Thracian settlements, fueling the nascent city’s economy.[49] The city experienced a brief period of Persian rule at the turn of the 5th century BCE, but the Greeks recaptured it during the Greco-Persian Wars.[50] Byzantium then continued as part of the Athenian League and its successor, the Second Athenian Empire, before gaining independence in 355 BCE.[51] Long allied with the Romans, Byzantium officially became a part of the Roman Empire in 73 CE.[52] Byzantium’s decision to side with the Roman usurper Pescennius Niger against Emperor Septimius Severus cost it dearly; by the time it surrendered at the end of 195 CE, two years of siege had left the city devastated.[53] Five years later, Severus began to rebuild Byzantium, and the city regained—and, by some accounts, surpassed—its previous prosperity.[54]

2.1

Rise and fall of Constantinople

Main article: Constantinople Constantine the Great effectively became the emperor of the whole of the Roman Empire in September 324.[55] Two months later, he laid out the plans for a new, Christian city to replace Byzantium. As the eastern capital of the empire, the city was named Nea Roma; most called it Constantinople, a name that persisted into the 20th century.[56] On 11 May 330, Constantinople was proclaimed the capital of an empire that became known as the Byzantine Empire or Eastern Roman Empire.[57] The establishment of Constantinople served as one of Constantine’s most lasting accomplishments, shifting Roman power eastward as the city became a center of Greek culture and Christianity.[57][58] Numerous churches were

Created in 1422 by Cristoforo Buondelmonti, this is the oldest surviving map of Constantinople.

built across the city, including the Hagia Sophia which was built during the reign of Justinian the Great and remained the world’s largest cathedral for a thousand years.[59] Constantine also undertook a major renovation and expansion of the Hippodrome of Constantinople; accommodating tens of thousands of spectators, the hippodrome became central to civic life and, in the 5th and 6th centuries, the epicenter of episodes of unrest, including the Nika riots.[60][61] Constantinople’s location also ensured its existence would stand the test of time; for many centuries, its walls and seafront protected Europe against invaders from the east and the advance of Islam.[58] During most of the Middle Ages, the latter part of the Byzantine era, Constantinople was the largest and wealthiest city on the European continent and at times the largest in the world.[62][63] Constantinople began to decline continuously after the end of the reign of Basil II in 1025. The final blow was given by the conquest of Villardouin and Enrico Dandolo in 1204 during the Fourth Crusade, where the City was sacked and pillaged.[64] The city subsequently became the center of the Latin Empire, created by Catholic crusaders to replace the Orthodox Byzantine Empire.[65] Aghia Sophia was converted to a catholic church in 1204. Byzantine Empire was restored, albeit weakened, in 1261.[66] Constantinople’s churches, defenses, and basic services were in disrepair,[67] and its population had dwindled to a hundred thousand from half a million during the 8th century.[lower-alpha 4] After the reconquest of 1261, however some of the City’s monuments were restored, like the 2 Deisis mosaics in Aghia Sofia and Kariye

4

2

were created. Various economic and military policies instituted by Andronikos II, such as the reduction of military forces, weakened the empire and left it vulnerable to attack.[68] In the mid-14th century, the Ottoman Turks began a strategy of gradually taking smaller towns and cities, cutting off Constantinople’s supply routes and strangling it slowly.[69] On 29 May 1453, after an eight-week siege (during which the last Roman emperor, Constantine XI, was killed), Sultan Mehmed II “the Conqueror” captured Constantinople and declared it the new capital of the Ottoman Empire. Hours later, the sultan rode to the Hagia Sophia and summoned an imam to proclaim the Islamic creed, converting the grand cathedral into an imperial mosque due to the city’s refusal to surrender peacefully.[70] Mehmed declared himself as the new “Kaysar-i Rûm” (the Ottoman Turkish equivalent of Caesar of Rome) and the Ottoman state was reorganized into an empire.[71]

2.2

Ottoman and Turkish era

HISTORY

tal, creating a cosmopolitan society that persisted through much of the Ottoman period.[72] Mehmed II repaired the city’s damaged infrastructure, began to build the Grand Bazaar, and constructed Topkapı Palace, the sultan’s official residence.[73] With the transfer of the capital from Edirne (formerly Adrianople) to Constantinople, the new state was declared as the successor and continuation of the Roman Empire.[74]

A painting of Ottoman era Istanbul by Thomas Allom

The Ottomans quickly transformed the city from a bastion of Christianity to a symbol of Islamic culture. Religious foundations were established to fund the construction of ornate imperial mosques, often adjoined by schools, hospitals, and public baths.[73] The Ottoman Dynasty claimed the status of caliphate in 1517, with Istanbul remaining the capital of this last caliphate for four centuries.[12] Suleiman the Magnificent's reign from 1520 to 1566 was a period of especially great artistic and architectural achievement; chief architect Mimar Sinan designed several iconic buildings in the city, while Ottoman arts of ceramics, stained glass, calligraphy, and miniature flourished.[75] The population of Istanbul was 570,000 by the end of the 18th century.[76] A period of rebellion at the start of the 19th century led to the rise of the progressive Sultan Mahmud II and eventually to the Tanzimat period, which produced political reforms and allowed new technology to be introduced to the city.[77] Bridges across the Golden Horn were constructed during this period,[78] and Istanbul was connected to the rest of the European railway network in the 1880s.[79] Modern facilities, such as a water supply network, electricity, telephones, and trams, were gradually introduced to Istanbul over the following decades, although later than Three paintings of Ottoman era Istanbul by Ivan Aiva- to other European cities.[80] The modernization efforts zovsky. were not enough to forestall the decline of the Ottoman Empire. Following the conquest of Constantinople, Mehmed II immediately set out to revitalize the city, by then also known as Istanbul. He urged the return of those who had fled the city during the siege, and resettled Muslims, Jews, and Christians from other parts of Anatolia. The sultan invited people from all over Europe to his capi-

In the early 20th century, the Young Turk Revolution deposed Sultan Abdul Hamid II and a series of wars plagued the ailing empire’s capital.[81] The last of these, World War I, resulted in the British, French, and Italian occupation of Constantinople. The Armenian population of the city was also affected by the deportation of Arme-

5 nian intellectuals on 24 April 1915, in which leaders of the Armenian community were arrested and mostly killed as part of the Armenian Genocide. To commemorate the victims of the Armenian Genocide, 24 April has now become the day of remembrance.[82] The final Ottoman sultan, Mehmed VI, was exiled in November 1922; the following year, the occupation of Constantinople ended with the signing of the Treaty of Lausanne and the recognition of the Republic of Turkey, declared by Mustafa Kemal Atatürk.[83] In the early years of the republic, Istanbul was overlooked in favor of Ankara, selected as Turkey’s capital to distance the new, secular country from its Ottoman history.[84] From the late 1940s and early 1950s, Istanbul underwent great structural change, as new public squares, boulevards, and avenues were constructed throughout the city, sometimes at the expense of historical buildings.[85] The population of Istanbul began to rapidly increase in Faults in western Turkey are concentrated just southwest of Istanbul, passing under the Sea of Marmara and the Aegean Sea. the 1970s, as people from Anatolia migrated to the city to find employment in the many new factories that were built on the outskirts of the sprawling metropolis. This sudden, sharp rise in the city’s population caused a large demand for housing, and many previously outlying villages and forests became engulfed into the metropolitan area of Istanbul.[86]

A panoramic view of Istanbul from the Ottoman era. (Image with notes) Satellite view of Istanbul and the Bosphorus strait

3

Geography

terred attacking forces for thousands of years and remains [58] Further information: Geography of Turkey and Geology a prominent feature of the city’s landscape. of Turkey Following the model of Rome, the historic peninsula is Istanbul is located in north-western Turkey within the said to be characterized by seven hills, each topped by Marmara Region on a total area of 5,343 square kilo- imperial mosques. The easternmost of these hills is the meters (2,063 sq mi).[lower-alpha 3] The Bosphorus, which site of Topkapı Palace on the Sarayburnu.[91] Rising from connects the Sea of Marmara to the Black Sea, divides the opposite side of the Golden Horn is another, conithe city into a European, Thracian side—comprising the cal hill, where the modern Beyoğlu district is situated. historic and economic centers—and an Asian, Anatolian Because of the topography, buildings in Beyoğlu were side. The city is further divided by the Golden Horn, a once constructed with the help of terraced retaining walls, natural harbor bounding the peninsula where the former and roads were laid out in the form of steps.[92] Üsküdar Byzantium and Constantinople were founded. The con- on the Asian side exhibits similarly hilly characteristics, fluence of the Sea of Marmara, the Bosphorus, and the with the terrain gradually extending down to the BosphoGolden Horn at the heart of present-day Istanbul has de- rus coast, but the landscape in Şemsipaşa and Ayazma is

6

3

GEOGRAPHY

Topography of Istanbul Fog, seen here shrouding Levent, frequently forms in the morn-

more abrupt, akin to a promontory. The highest point in ing. Istanbul is Çamlıca Hill, with an altitude of 288 meters (945 ft).[92] The northern half of Istanbul has a higher mean elevation compared to the south coast, with locations surpassing 200 meters (660 ft), and some coasts with steep cliffs resembling fjords, especially around the northern end of the Bosporus, where it opens up to the Black Sea. Istanbul is situated near the North Anatolian Fault, close to the boundary between the African and Eurasian Plates. This fault zone, which runs from northern Anatolia to the Sea of Marmara, has been responsible for several deadly earthquakes throughout the city’s history. Among the most devastating of these seismic events was the 1509 earthquake, which caused a tsunami that broke over the walls of the city and killed more than 10,000 people. More recently, in 1999, an earthquake with its epicenter in nearby İzmit left 18,000 people dead, including 1,000 people in Istanbul’s suburbs. The people of Istanbul remain concerned that an even more catastrophic seismic event may be in the city’s near future, as thousands of structures recently built to accommodate Istanbul’s rapidly increasing population may not have been constructed properly.[93] Seismologists say the risk of a 7.6-magnitude or greater earthquake striking Istanbul by 2030 is more than 60 percent.[94][95]

3.1

Climate

In the Köppen–Geiger classification system, Istanbul has a borderline Mediterranean climate (Csa), humid subtropical climate (Cfa) and oceanic climate (Cfb), due to its location in a transitional climatic zone. Since precipitation in summer months, ranges from 20 to 65 mm (1 to 3 in), depending on location, the city cannot be classified as solely Mediterranean or humid subtropical.[96][97][98] Due to its size, diverse topography, maritime location and most importantly having a coastline to two different bodies of water to the north and south, Istanbul exhibits microclimates. The northern half of the city, as well as the Bosporus coastline, express characteristics of

Contrasting annual precipitation differences in Istanbul, creating multiple microclimates.

Microclimates of Istanbul according to Köppen–Geiger classification system

oceanic and humid subtropical climates, because of humidity from the Black Sea and the relatively high concentration of vegetation. The climate in the populated areas of the city to the south, located on the Sea of Marmara, is warmer, drier and less affected by humidity.[99] The annual precipitation in the northern half can be twice as much (Bahçeköy, 1166.6 mm), than it is in the southern, Marmara coast (Florya 635.0 mm).[100] There is a significant difference between annual mean temperatures on the north and south coasts as well, Bahçeköy 12.8 °C (55.0 °F), Kartal 15.03 °C (59.05 °F).[101] Parts of the province, that are away from both seas exhibit considerable continental influences, with much more pronounced night-day and summer-winter temperature differences. In winter some parts of the province average freezing or below at night.

7 Istanbul’s persistently high humidity reaches 80 percent most mornings.[102] Because of this, fog is very common, although more so in northern parts of the city and away from the city center.[99] Dense fog disrupts transportation in the region, including on the Bosphorus, and is common during the autumn and winter months when the humidity remains high into the afternoon.[103][104][105] The humid conditions and the fog tend to dissipate by midday during the summer months, but the lingering humidity exacerbates the moderately high summer temperatures.[102][106] During these summer months, high temperatures average around 29 °C (84 °F) and rainfall is uncommon; there are only about fifteen days with measurable precipitation between June and August.[107] The summer months also have the highest concentration of thunderstorms.[108] Winter is colder in Istanbul than in most other cities around the Mediterranean Basin, with low temperatures averaging 1–4 °C (34–39 °F).[107] Lake-effect snow from the Black Sea is common, although difficult to forecast, with the potential to be heavy and—as with the fog—disruptive to the city’s infrastructure.[109] Spring and autumn are mild, but often wet and unpredictable; chilly winds from the northwest and warm gusts from the south—sometimes in the same day—tend to cause fluctuations in temperature.[106][110] Overall, Istanbul has an annual average of 130 days with significant precipitation, which amounts to 810 millimeters (31.9 in) per year.[107][111] The highest and lowest temperatures ever recorded in the city center on the Marmara coast are 40.5 °C (105 °F) and −16.1 °C (3 °F). The greatest rainfall recorded in a day is 227 millimeters (8.9 in), and the highest recorded snow cover is 80 centimeters (31 in).[112][113]

4

Cityscape

See also: List of urban centers in Istanbul

of there are yalıs, luxurious chalet mansions originally built by 19th-century aristocrats and elites as summer homes.[120] Farther inland, outside the city’s inner ring road, are Levent and Maslak, Istanbul’s primary economic centers.[121]

Originally outside the city, yalı residences along the Bosphorus are now homes in some of Istanbul’s elite neighborhoods.

During the Ottoman period, Üsküdar and Kadıköy were outside the scope of urban Istanbul, serving as tranquil outposts with seaside yalıs and gardens. During the second half of the 20th century, the Asian side experienced major urban growth; the late development of this part of the city led to better infrastructure and tidier urban planning when compared with most other residential areas in the city.[9] Much of the Asian side of the Bosphorus functions as a suburb of the economic and commercial centers in European Istanbul, accounting for a third of the city’s population but only a quarter of its employment.[9] As a result of Istanbul’s exponential growth during the 20th century, a significant portion of the city is composed of gecekondus (literally “built overnight”), referring to illegally constructed squatter buildings.[122] At present, some gecekondu areas are being gradually demolished and replaced by modern mass-housing compounds.[123] Moreover, large scale gentrification and urban renewal projects have been taking place,[124] such as the one in Tarlabaşı;[125] some of these projects, like the one in Sulukule, have faced criticism.[126] The Turkish government also has ambitious plans for an expansion of the city west and northwards on the European side in conjunction with plans for a third airport and the city’s Olympic bid; the new parts of the city will include four different settlements with specified urban functions, housing 1.5 million people.[127]

The Fatih district corresponds to what was, until the Ottoman conquest, the whole of the city, across from the Genoese citadel of Galata. Those Genoese fortifications were largely demolished in the 19th century, leaving only the Galata Tower, to make way for northward expansion of the city.[117] Galata is now part of the Beyoğlu district, which forms Istanbul’s commercial and entertainment center on Taksim Square.[118] Istanbul does not have a primary urban park, but it does Dolmabahçe Palace, the seat of government during the have several green areas. Gülhane Park and Yıldız Park late Ottoman period, is located in Beşiktaş, just north were originally included within the grounds of two of of Beyoğlu, across from BJK İnönü Stadium, home to Istanbul’s palaces—Topkapı Palace and Yıldız Palace— Turkey’s oldest sports club. The main administration but they were repurposed as public parks in the early building of the Ottoman Empire was the "Sublime Porte" decades of the Turkish Republic.[128] Another park, Fethi or BaabiAli in Ottoman, a huge building in the old City Paşa Korusu, is situated on a hillside adjacent to the close to Top Kapi.[119] The former village of Ortaköy is Bosphorus Bridge in Anatolia, opposite Yıldız Palace. situated within Beşiktaş and gives its name to the Ortaköy Along the European side, and closer to the Fatih Sultan Mosque, along the Bosphorus near the First Bospho- Mehmet Bridge, is Emirgan Park; originally a private esrus Bridge. Lining the shores of the Bosphorus north tate belonging to Ottoman leaders, the 47-hectare (120-

8

4

CITYSCAPE

acre) park is known for its diversity of plants and an annual tulip festival held since 2005.[129] Popular during the summer among Istanbulites is Belgrad Forest, spreading across 5,500 hectares (14,000 acres) at the northern edge of the city. The forest originally supplied water to the city and remnants of reservoirs used during Byzantine and Ottoman times survive.[130][131]

Dolmabahçe, Çırağan and Beylerbeyi palaces on the European and Asian shores of the Bosphorus. They were of the Balyan family of Ottoman Panoramic view of Istanbul from the confluence of designed by members [132] court architects. the Bosphorus and the Sea of Marmara. Several landmarks—including Sultan Ahmed Mosque, the Hagia Sophia, Topkapı Palace, and Dolmabahçe Palace—can Istanbul is primarily known for its Byzantine and Otbe seen along their shores. toman architecture, but its buildings reflect the various peoples and empires that have previously ruled the city. Examples of Genoese and Roman architecture remain visible in Istanbul alongside their Ottoman counterparts. Nothing of the architecture of the classical Greek period has survived, but Roman architecture has proved to be 4.1 Architecture more durable. The obelisk erected by Theodosius in the Hippodrome of Constantinople is still visible in SultanahMain article: Architecture of Istanbul met Square, and a section of the Valens Aqueduct, constructed in the late 4th century, stands relatively intact at the western edge of the Fatih district.[133] The Column of Constantine, erected in 330 CE to mark the new Roman capital, stands not far from the Hippodrome.[133] Early Byzantine architecture followed the classical Roman model of domes and arches, but improved upon these elements, as in the Church of the Saints Sergius and Bacchus. The oldest surviving Byzantine church in Istanbul—albeit in ruins—is the Monastery of Stoudios (later converted into the Imrahor Mosque), which was built in 454.[134] After the recapture of Constantinople in 1261, the Byzantines enlarged two of the most important churches extant, Chora Church and Pammakaristos Church. The pinnacle of Byzantine architecture, and one of Istanbul’s most iconic structures, is the Hagia Sophia. Topped by a dome 31 meters (102 ft) in diameter,[135] the Hagia Sophia stood as the world’s largest cathedral for centuries, and was later converted into a mosque and, as it stands now, a museum.[59] Originally a church, later a mosque, and today (since 1935) a museum, the 6th century Hagia Sophia (532–537) in Istanbul (Constantinople) built by the Byzantine emperor Justinian the Great was the largest cathedral ever constructed in the world for nearly a thousand years, until the completion of the Seville Cathedral (1507) in Spain.

Among the oldest surviving examples of Ottoman architecture in Istanbul are the Anadoluhisarı and Rumelihisarı fortresses, which assisted the Ottomans during their siege of the city.[136] Over the next four centuries, the Ottomans made an indelible impression on the skyline of Istanbul, building towering mosques and or-

9 nate palaces. The largest palace, Topkapı, includes a diverse array of architectural styles, from Baroque inside the Harem, to its Neoclassical style Enderûn Library.[137] The imperial mosques include Fatih Mosque, Bayezid Mosque, Yavuz Selim Mosque, Süleymaniye Mosque, Sultan Ahmed Mosque (the Blue Mosque), and Yeni Mosque, all of which were built at the peak of the Ottoman Empire, in the 16th and 17th centuries. In the following centuries, and especially after the Tanzimat reforms, Ottoman architecture was supplanted by European styles.[138] An example of which is the imperial Nuruosmaniye Mosque. Areas around İstiklal Avenue were filled with grand European embassies and rows of buildings in Neoclassical, Renaissance Revival and Art Nouveau styles, which went on to influence the architecture of a variety of structures in Beyoğlu—including churches, stores, and theaters—and official buildings such as Dolmabahçe Palace.[139]

5

Administration

of Paris, but they were not fully implemented until 1908, when Istanbul was declared a province with nine constituent districts.[142][143] This system continued beyond the founding of the Turkish Republic, with the province renamed a belediye (municipality), but the municipality was disbanded in 1957.[88][144]

Statue of Atatürk in Büyükada, the largest of the Prince Islands to the southeast of Istanbul, which collectively form the Adalar (Isles) district of Istanbul Province.

Main articles: List of districts of Istanbul and List of neighbourhoods of Istanbul Since 2004, Istanbul has been a city whose munici- Small settlements adjacent to major population centers in Turkey, including Istanbul, were merged into their respective primary cities during the early 1980s, resulting in metropolitan municipalities.[145][146] The main decisionmaking body of the Istanbul Metropolitan Municipality is the Municipal Council, with members drawn from district councils.

pal boundaries are concurrent with the boundaries of its province.[140] The city, considered capital of Istanbul Province, is administered by the Istanbul Metropolitan Municipality (MMI), which oversees the 39 districts of the city-province.[lower-alpha 3]

The Municipal Council is responsible for citywide issues, including managing the budget, maintaining civic infrastructure, and overseeing museums and major cultural centers.[147] Since the government operates under a “powerful mayor, weak council” approach, the council’s leader—the metropolitan mayor—has the authority to make swift decisions, often at the expense of transparency.[148] The Municipal Council is advised by the Metropolitan Executive Committee, although the Committee also has limited power to make decisions of its own.[149] All representatives on the Committee are appointed by the metropolitan mayor and the Council, with the mayor—or someone of his or her choosing—serving as head.[149][150]

The current city structure can be traced back to the Tanzimat period of reform in the 19th century, before which Islamic judges and imams led the city under the auspices of the Grand Vizier. Following the model of French cities, this religious system was replaced by a mayor and a citywide council composed of representatives of the confessional groups (millet) across Istanbul. Beyoğlu was the first area of the city to have its own director and council, with members instead being longtime residents of the neighborhood.[141] Laws enacted after the Ottoman constitution of 1876 aimed to expand this structure across the city, imitating the twenty arrondissements

District councils are chiefly responsible for waste management and construction projects within their respective districts. They each maintain their own budgets, although the metropolitan mayor reserves the right to review district decisions. One-fifth of all district council members, including the district mayors, also represent their districts in the Municipal Council.[147] All members of the district councils and the Municipal Council, including the metropolitan mayor, are elected to fiveyear terms.[151] Representing the Justice and Development Party, Kadir Topbaş has been Mayor of Istanbul since March 2004.[152]

Istanbul’s districts extend far from the city center, along the full length of the Bosphorus (with the Black Sea at the top and the Sea of Marmara at the bottom of the map).

10

6 DEMOGRAPHICS

A view of Taksim Square with the Monument of the Republic which was opened in 1928.

With the Istanbul Metropolitan Municipality and Istanbul Province having equivalent jurisdictions, few responsibilities remain for the provincial government. Similar to the MMI, the Istanbul Special Provincial Administration has a governor, a democratically elected decision-making body—the Provincial Parliament—and an appointed Executive Committee. Mirroring the executive committee at the municipal level, the Provincial Executive Committee includes a secretary-general and leaders of departments that advise the Provincial Parliament.[150][153] The Provincial Administration’s duties are largely limited to the building and maintenance of schools, residences, government buildings, and roads, and the promotion of arts, culture, and nature conservation.[154] Hüseyin Avni Mutlu has been Governor of Istanbul Province since May 2010.[155]

6

Demographics

See also: Demographics of Turkey and Istanbul Province Throughout most of its history, Istanbul has ranked

Greek population in Istanbul and percentages of the city population (1844-1997). The Turkish policies, after 1923, led virtually to the elimination of the Greek community.

among the largest cities in the world. By 500 CE, Constantinople had somewhere between 400,000 and 500,000 people, edging out its predecessor, Rome, for world’s largest city.[157] Constantinople jostled with other major historical cities, such as Baghdad, Chang'an, Kaifeng and Merv for the position of world’s most popu-

A map showing the comparison of the urbanisation of the city in grey, in 1975 and 2011

lous city until the 12th century. It never returned to being the world’s largest, but remained Europe’s largest city from 1500 to 1750, when it was surpassed by London.[158] The Turkish Statistical Institute estimates that the population of Istanbul Metropolitan Municipality was 14,377,019 at the end of 2014, hosting 19 percent of the country’s population.[6] Other estimate that at the same time the population within city limits was 14,025,646.[4] Then about 97-98% of the inhabitants of the metropolitan municipality were within city limits, up from 89% in 2007[159] and 61% in 1980.[160] 64.7% of the residents live on the European side and 35.3% on the Asian side.[161] While the city ranks as world’s 5th-largest city proper, it drops the rank to the 24th place as an urban area and to the 18th place as a metro area because the city limits are roughly equivalent to the agglomeration. Today, it forms one of the largest urban agglomerations in Europe, alongside Moscow.[lower-alpha 5] The city’s annual population growth of 3.45 percent ranks as the highest among the seventy-eight largest metropolises in the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. The high population growth mirrors an urbanization trend across the country, as the second and third fastest-growing OECD metropolises are the Turkish cities of İzmir and Ankara.[19] Istanbul experienced especially rapid growth during the second half of the 20th century, with its population increasing tenfold between 1950 and 2000.[14] This growth in population comes, in part, from an expansion of city

11 limits—particularly between 1980 and 1985, when the number of Istanbulites nearly doubled.[88] The remarkable growth was, and still is, largely fueled by migrants from eastern Turkey seeking employment and improved living conditions. The number of residents of Istanbul originating from seven northern and eastern provinces is greater than the populations of their entire respective provinces; Sivas and Kastamonu each account for more than half a million residents of Istanbul.[15] Istanbul’s foreign population, by comparison, is very small, 42,228 residents in 2007.[164] Only 28 percent of the city’s residents are originally from Istanbul.[165] The most densely populated areas tend to lie to the northwest, west, and southwest of the city center, on the European side; the most densely populated district on the Asian side is Üsküdar.[15]

6.1

Religious and ethnic groups

Main article: Religion in Istanbul See also: Kurds in Turkey, Bosniaks in Turkey, Greeks in Turkey, Armenians in Turkey, Jews in Turkey and Albanians in Turkey Istanbul has been a cosmopolitan city throughout much

Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople jurisdictions where members live

of its history, but it has become more homogenized since the end of the Ottoman Empire. Most of Turkey’s religious and ethnic minorities remain concentrated in Istanbul. The vast majority of people across Turkey, and in Istanbul, consider themselves Muslim, and more specifically members of the Sunni branch of Islam. Most Sunnis follow the Hanafi school of Islamic thought, although approximately 10 percent of Sunnis follow the Shafi'i school. The largest non-Sunni Muslim sect, accounting for 4.5 million Turks, is the Alevis; a third of all Alevis in the country live in Istanbul.[165] Mystic movements, like Sufism, were officially banned after the establishment of the Turkish Republic, but they still boast numerous followers.[166] The Patriarch of Constantinople has been designated Ec-

umenical Patriarch since the sixth century, and has subsequently come to be widely regarded as the leader of the world’s 300 million Orthodox Christians.[167] Since 1601, the Patriarchate has been based in Istanbul’s Church of St. George.[168] Into the 19th century, the Christians of Istanbul tended to be either Greek Orthodox or members of the Armenian Apostolic Church.[169] The headquarters of the Turkish Orthodox Church are located in the city. Because of events during the 20th century—including the 1923 population exchange between Greece and Turkey, a 1942 wealth tax, and the 1955 Istanbul riots—the Greek population, originally centered in Fener and Samatya, has decreased substantially. At the start of the 21st century, Istanbul’s Greek population numbered 3,000 (down from 130,000 in 1923 and 260,000 according to the Ottoman Census of 1910 of 850,000 total).[170][171] There are today between 50,000 and 70,000 Armenians in Istanbul, down from 164,000 in 1913 partly due to the Armenian Genocide.[172] Christians made up half the population of the city in 1910.[173] The largest ethnic minority in Istanbul is the Kurdish community, originating from eastern and southeastern Turkey. Although the Kurdish presence in the city dates back to the early Ottoman period,[174] the influx of Kurds into the city has accelerated since the beginning of the Kurdish–Turkish conflict with the Kurdistan Workers’ Party (i.e. since the late 1970s).[175] About two to three million residents of Istanbul are Kurdish, meaning there are more Kurds in Istanbul than in any other city in the world.[176][177][178][179][180] There are other significant ethnic minorities as well, the Bosniaks are the main people of an entire district - Bayrampaşa.[181] The neighborhood of Balat used to be home to a sizable Sephardi Jewish community, first formed during the period of the Spanish Inquisition.[182] Romaniotes and Ashkenazi Jews resided in Istanbul even before the Sephardim, but their proportion has since dwindled; today, 1 percent of Istanbul’s Jews are Ashkenazi.[183][184] In large part due to emigration to Israel, the Jewish population nationwide dropped from 100,000 in 1950 to 18,000 in 2005, with the majority of them living in either Istanbul or İzmir.[185] Levantines, Latin Christians who settled in Galata during the Ottoman period, played a seminal role in shaping the culture and architecture of Istanbul during the 19th and early 20th centuries; their population has dwindled, but they remain in the city in small numbers.[186]

7 Politics Istanbul has voted for the winning party in general elections since 1995. Since 2002, the right-wing Justice and Development Party (AKP) has won pluralities in every general and local election. The city’s electorate has also voted for the AKP government’s constitutional reforms proposed during the 2007 and 2010 constitutional referenda. Turkish President and former AKP Prime Minis-

12 ter Recep Tayyip Erdoğan was elected Mayor of İstanbul in the 1994 local elections as the Islamist Welfare Party candidate with 25.1% of the vote, winning due to a vote split between the mainstream centrist parties. Conservative parties traditionally find support in older districts with high population densities such as Bağcılar, Fatih, Sultanbeyli and Esenler. The opposition Kemalist centerleft Republican People’s Party (CHP), currently the second major political force in both İstanbul and the country, gets most of its support from more rural districts such as Silivri, Çatalca and Sarıyer. Urban districts such as Beşiktaş, Bakırköy, Şişli and Kadıköy have returned strong support for the CHP in past elections. The CHP are generally strongest in the west, where newer residential developments are taking place. İstanbul has 39 districts, more than any other province in Turkey. Since İstanbul is Turkey’s largest city and has usually voted in the same way as the country as a whole, it is largely perceived in Turkish politics that the winning party of an election is essentially decided by İstanbul’s electorate. Political parties thus allocate substantial amounts of electoral campaign funds and to winning control of the İstanbul Metropolitan Municipality. Due to its electoral importance, İstanbul has reported the largest and most serious cases of electoral fraud in recent elections, including the 2014 local elections.[187][188][189][190][191][192][193]

8 ECONOMY

8 Economy Main article: Economy of Istanbul With a PPP-adjusted gross domestic product of

A view of Levent, one of the main business districts in Istanbul and home to the city’s tallest buildings

US$301.1 billion, Istanbul ranked 29th among the world’s urban areas in 2011.[195] Since the mid-1990s, Istanbul’s economy has been one of the fastest-growing among OECD metro-regions.[19] According to Foreign Policy and the McKinsey Global Institute, Istanbul will register the 14th-highest absolute GDP growth among world cities by 2025, with a nominal increase of US$291.5 billion.[196] Istanbul is responsible for 27 percent of Turkey’s GDP, with 20 percent of the country’s industrial labor force residing in the city.[19][197] Its GDP per capita and productivity are greater than their national averages by 70 percent and 50 percent, respectively, owing in part to the focus on high-value-added activities. Istanbul Metropolitan Municipality building in the Fatih district With its high population and significant contribution to the Turkish economy, Istanbul is responsible for twofifths of the nation’s tax revenue.[19] That includes the The incumbent mayor of the city is Kadir Topbaş of the taxes of 37 billionaires based in Istanbul, the fifth-highest AKP, who was first elected in the 2004 local elections and number among cities around the world.[198] succeeded Ali Müfit Gürtuna of the closed down Welfare Party. He was re-elected in 2009 and 2014. The leader As expected for a city of its size, Istanbul has a diverse as varied as of the CHP and parliamentary opposition, Kemal Kılıç- industrial economy, producing commodities[197] Despite olive oil, tobacco, vehicles, and electronics. daroğlu, ran against Topbaş in the 2009 local elections. having a focus on high-value-added work, its low-valueHe is currently a Member of Parliament for İstanbul. Between 2007 and 2014, Prime Minister Recep Tayyip Er- added manufacturing sector is substantial, representing GDP, but four-fifths of the doğan was also an MP for İstanbul. For general elections, just 26 percent of Istanbul’s [19] In 2005, companies based in Iscity’s total exports. the city is divided into 3 electoral districts and returns tanbul produced exports worth $41.4 billion and received 85 MPs to the Turkish parliament. In the 2014 presiimports totaling $69.9 billion; these figures were equivdential election, 49.83% of the city’s electorate voted for alent to 57 percent and 60 percent, respectively, of the AKP candidate Recep Tayyip Erdoğan. Although Er[199] national totals. doğan won the most votes in İstanbul, his failure to win above 50% was seen as significant. Opposition candidate Istanbul is home to Borsa Istanbul, the sole exchange Ekmeleddin İhsanoğlu came second with 41.08% and entity of Turkey, which combined the former Istanbul the HDP pro-Kurdish and left-wing candidate Selahattin Stock Exchange, the Istanbul Gold Exchange, and the Demirtaş won a substantial 9.09%.[194] In 2013 and 2014, Derivatives Exchange of Turkey.[200] The former Istanbul large-scale anti-AKP government protests began in İstan- Stock Exchange was originally established as the Otbul and spread throughout the nation. toman Stock Exchange in 1866.[201] During the 19th and

13 early 20th centuries, Bankalar Caddesi (Banks Street) in Galata was the financial center of the Ottoman Empire, where the Ottoman Stock Exchange was located.[202] Bankalar Caddesi continued to be Istanbul’s main financial district until the 1990s, when most Turkish banks began moving their headquarters to the modern central business districts of Levent and Maslak. In 1995, the Istanbul Stock Exchange (now Borsa Istanbul) moved to its current building in the İstinye quarter of the Sarıyer district.[203] A new central business district is also under construction in Ataşehir and will host the headquarters of various Turkish banks and financial institutions upon completion.[204]

after Antalya, receiving a quarter of the nation’s foreign tourists. Istanbul’s tourist industry is concentrated in the European side, with 90 percent of the city’s hotels located there. Low- and mid-range hotels tend to be located on the Sarayburnu; higher-end hotels are primarily located in the entertainment and financial centers north of the Golden Horn. Istanbul’s seventy museums, the most visited of which are the Topkapı Palace Museum and the Hagia Sophia, bring in $30 million in revenue each year. The city’s environmental master plan also notes that there are 17 palaces, 64 mosques, and 49 churches of historical significance in Istanbul.[215]

9 Culture Main article: Culture of Istanbul Istanbul was historically known as a cultural hub, but

As a route to the Black Sea, the Bosphorus is one of the busiest waterways in the world.

As the only sea route between the oil-rich Black Sea and the Mediterranean, the Bosphorus is one of the busiest waterways in the world; more than 200 million tonnes of oil pass through the strait each year, and the traffic on the Bosphorus is three times that on the Suez Canal.[205] As a result, there have been proposals to build a canal, known as Canal Istanbul, parallel to the strait, on the European side of the city.[206] Istanbul has three major shipping ports—the Port of Haydarpaşa, the Port of Ambarlı, and the Port of Zeytinburnu—as well as several smaller ports and oil terminals along the Bosphorus and the Sea of Marmara.[207][208] Haydarpaşa, situated at the southeastern end of the Bosphorus, was Istanbul’s largest port until the early 2000s. Shifts in operations to Ambarlı since then have left Haydarpaşa running under capacity and with plans to decommission the port.[209] In 2007, Ambarlı, on the western edge of the urban center, had an annual capacity of 1.5 million TEUs (compared to 354,000 TEUs at Haydarpaşa), making it the fourthlargest cargo terminal in the Mediterranean basin.[210][211] The Port of Zeytinburnu is advantaged by its proximity to motorways and Atatürk International Airport,[212] and long-term plans for the city call for greater connectivity between all terminals and the road and rail networks.[213] Istanbul is an increasingly popular tourist destination; whereas just 2.4 million foreigners visited the city in 2000, it welcomed 12.56 million foreign tourists in 2015, making it the world’s fifth most-visited city.[16][214] Istanbul is Turkey’s second-largest international gateway,

The Istanbul Archaeology Museums, founded by Osman Hamdi Bey in 1891, form Turkey’s oldest modern museum.[216]

its cultural scene stagnated after the Turkish Republic shifted its focus toward Ankara.[217] The new national government established programs that served to orient Turks toward musical traditions, especially those originating in Europe, but musical institutions and visits by foreign classical artists were primarily centered in the new capital.[218] Much of Turkey’s cultural scene had its roots in Istanbul, and by the 1980s and 1990s Istanbul reemerged globally as a city whose cultural significance is not solely based on its past glory.[219] By the end of the 19th century, Istanbul had established itself as a regional artistic center, with Turkish, European, and Middle Eastern artists flocking to the city. Despite efforts to make Ankara Turkey’s cultural heart, Istanbul had the country’s primary institution of art until the 1970s.[220] When additional universities and art journals were founded in Istanbul during the 1980s, artists formerly based in Ankara moved in.[221] Beyoğlu has been transformed into the artistic center of the city, with young artists and older Turkish artists formerly residing abroad finding footing there. Modern art museums, including

14

9 CULTURE the original Istanbul Festival is the Istanbul Biennial, held every two years since 1987. Its early incarnations were aimed at showcasing Turkish visual art, and it has since opened to international artists and risen in prestige to join the elite biennales, alongside the Venice Biennale and the São Paulo Art Biennial.[230]

9.1 Leisure and entertainment

Pera Museum in Beyoğlu.

İstanbul Modern, the Pera Museum, Sakıp Sabancı Museum and SantralIstanbul, opened in the 2000s to complement the exhibition spaces and auction houses that have already contributed to the cosmopolitan nature of the city.[222] These museums have yet to attain the popularity of older museums on the historic peninsula, including the Istanbul Archaeology Museums, which ushered in the era of modern museums in Turkey, and the Turkish and Islamic Arts Museum.[215][216]

The Grand Bazaar is one of the largest covered markets in the world.

Istanbul has numerous shopping centers, from the historic to the modern. The Grand Bazaar, in operation since 1461, is among the world’s oldest and largest covered markets.[231][232] Mahmutpasha Bazaar is an openair market extending between the Grand Bazaar and the Egyptian Bazaar, which has been Istanbul’s major spice market since 1660. Galleria Ataköy ushered in the age of modern shopping malls in Turkey when it opened in 1987.[233] Since then, malls have become major shopping centers outside the historic peninsula. Akmerkez was awarded the titles of “Europe’s best” and “World’s best” shopping mall by the International Council of Shopping Centers in 1995 and 1996; Istanbul Cevahir has been one of the continent’s largest since opening in 2005; Kanyon won the Cityscape Architectural Review Award in the Commercial Built category in 2006.[232] İstinye Park in İstinye and Zorlu Center near Levent are among the newest malls which include the stores of the world’s top fashion brands. Abdi İpekçi Street in Nişantaşı and Bağdat Avenue on the Anatolian side of the city have evolved into high-end shopping districts.[234][235]

The first film screening in Turkey was at Yıldız Palace in 1896, a year after the technology publicly debuted in Paris.[223] Movie theaters rapidly cropped up in Beyoğlu, with the greatest concentration of theaters being along the street now known as İstiklal Avenue.[224] Istanbul also became the heart of Turkey’s nascent film industry, although Turkish films were not consistently developed until the 1950s.[225] Since then, Istanbul has been the most popular location to film Turkish dramas and comedies.[226] The Turkish film industry ramped up in the second half of the century, and with Uzak (2002) and My Father and My Son (2005), both filmed in Istanbul, the nation’s movies began to see substantial international success.[227] Istanbul and its picturesque skyline have also served as a backdrop for several foreign films, including Topkapi (1964), The World Is Not Enough (1999), and Mission Istaanbul Aside from typical Turkish cuisine like kebab, Istanbul is (2008).[228] also famous for its historic seafood restaurants. Many of Coinciding with this cultural reemergence was the estab- the city’s most popular and upscale seafood restaurants lishment of the Istanbul Festival, which began showcas- line the shores of the Bosphorus (particularly in neighing a variety of art from Turkey and around the world in borhoods like Ortaköy, Bebek, Arnavutköy, Yeniköy, 1973. From this flagship festival came the International Beylerbeyi and Çengelköy). Kumkapı along the Sea of Istanbul Film Festival and the Istanbul International Jazz Marmara has a pedestrian zone that hosts around fifty Festival in the early 1980s. With its focus now solely on fish restaurants.[236] The Princes’ Islands, 15 kilometers music and dance, the Istanbul Festival has been known as (9 mi) from the city center, are also popular for their the Istanbul International Music Festival since 1994.[229] seafood restaurants. Because of their restaurants, hisThe most prominent of the festivals that evolved from toric summer mansions, and tranquil, car-free streets, the

15 as Turkey’s only club, it occasionally played as the national team.[119] Its football team has seen several periods of dominance in national competition,[119] Istanbul’s Galatasaray S.K. and Fenerbahçe S.K. have fared better in international competition and share the honor of winning the most Süper Lig championships.[243][244] Galatasaray and Fenerbahçe have a long-standing rivalry, with Galatasaray based in European Istanbul and Fenerbahçe based in the Anatolian part of the city.[243] Istanbul has seven basketball teams—Anadolu Efes S.K., Beşiktaş, Darüşşafaka Doğuş, Fenerbahçe Ülker, Galatasaray Liv Hospital, İstanbul Büyükşehir Belediyespor and Tüyap Büyükçekmece—that play in the premier-level Turkish Basketball League.[245] New Year’s Eve decorations in Nişantaşı shopping district

Princes’ Islands are a popular vacation destination among Istanbulites and foreign tourists.[237] Restaurants featuring foreign cuisines are mainly concentrated in the Beyoğlu, Beşiktaş, Şişli and Kadıköy districts. Along İstiklal Avenue is the Çiçek Pasajı, now home to winehouses (known as meyhanes), pubs, and restaurants.[238] İstiklal Avenue, originally famous for its taverns, has shifted toward shopping, but the nearby Nevizade Street is still lined with winehouses and pubs.[239][240] Some other neighborhoods around İstiklal Avenue have recently been revamped to cater to Beyoğlu’s nightlife, with formerly commercial streets now lined with pubs, cafes, and restaurants playing live music.[241] Other focal points for Istanbul’s nightlife include Nişantaşı, Ortaköy, Bebek, and Kadıköy.[242]

10

Many of Istanbul’s sports facilities have been built or upgraded since 2000 to bolster the city’s bids for the Summer Olympic Games. Atatürk Olympic Stadium, the largest multi-purpose stadium in Turkey, was completed in 2002 as an IAAF first-class venue for track and field.[246] The stadium hosted the 2005 UEFA Champions League Final and remains the home field of İstanbul Büyükşehir Belediyespor. Şükrü Saracoğlu Stadium, Fenerbahçe’s home field, hosted the 2009 UEFA Cup Final three years after its completion, and Türk Telekom Arena opened in 2011 to replace Ali Sami Yen Stadium as Galatasaray’s home turf.[247][248] All three stadiums are elite Category 4 (formerly five-star) UEFA stadiums.[lower-alpha 6]

Sports

See also: List of sport facilities in Istanbul

Sinan Erdem Dome (top) Ülker Sports Arena (bottom) The Sinan Erdem Dome, among the largest indoor arenas in Europe, hosted the final of the 2010 FIBA World Championship, the 2012 IAAF World Indoor Championships, and the 2011–12 Euroleague Final Four.[252] Prior to the completion of the Sinan Erdem Dome in 2010, Abdi İpekçi Arena was Istanbul’s primary indoor arena, having hosted the finals of EuroBasket 2001.[253] Several other indoor arenas, including the Beşiktaş Akatlar Arena, have also been inaugurated since 2000, serving Atatürk Olympic Stadium (top) as the home courts of Istanbul’s sports clubs. The most Türk Telekom Arena (bottom) recent of these is the 13,800-seat Ülker Sports Arena, which opened in 2012 as the home court of Fenerbahçe’s Istanbul has some of Turkey’s oldest sports clubs. basketball teams.[254] Despite the construction boom, five Beşiktaş J.K., established in 1903, is considered the old- bids for the Summer Olympics—in 2000, 2004, 2008, est of these sports clubs; because of its initial status

16

11

MEDIA

2012, and 2020—and national bids for UEFA Euro 2012 and UEFA Euro 2016 have ended unsuccessfully.[255]

riyet Daily News, has been printed since 1961, but the English-language Today’s Zaman, first published by ZaIstanbul Park was a stop on the World Touring Car Cham- man in 2007, has overtaken it in circulation. Several like pionship circuit and the European Le Mans Series in 2005 smaller newspapers, including popular publications [264][265] Habertürk and Milliyet, are also based in Istanbul. and 2006, but the track has not seen either of these competitions since then.[256][257] Between its opening in 2005 and 2011, Istanbul Park also hosted the annual Turkish Grand Prix; its future remains uncertain due to financial troubles.[258] The Istanbul Sailing Club, established in 1952, hosts races, showcases, and events on the waterways in and around Istanbul each year.[259][260] The Turkish Offshore Racing Club also hosts major races, with its most prestigious being its race for the Marine Forces Trophy.[261] Istanbul was also an occasional stop on the F1 Powerboat World Championship circuit, although its last appearance on the Bosphorus was in 2000.[262]

11

Media Headquarters of the state-run TRT’s Istanbul radio operations

Established in 1948, Hürriyet is one of Turkey’s most circulated newspapers.

Radio broadcasts in Istanbul date back to 1927, when Turkey’s first radio transmission came from atop the Central Post Office in Eminönü. Control of this transmission, and other radio stations established in the following decades, ultimately came under the state-run Turkish Radio and Television Corporation (TRT), which held a monopoly on radio and television broadcasts between its founding in 1964 and 1990.[266] Today, TRT runs four national radio stations; these stations have transmitters across the country so each can reach over 90 percent of the country’s population, but only Radio 2 is based in Istanbul. Offering a range of content from educational programming to coverage of sporting events, Radio 2 is the most popular radio station in Turkey.[266] Istanbul’s airwaves are the busiest in Turkey, primarily featuring either Turkish-language or English-language content. One of the exceptions, offering both, is Açık Radyo (94.9 FM). Among Turkey’s first private stations, and the first featuring foreign popular music, was Istanbul’s Metro FM (97.2 FM). The state-run Radio 3, although based in Ankara, also features English-language popular music, and English-language news programming is provided on NTV Radyo (102.8 FM).[267]

Most state-run radio and television stations are based in Ankara, but Istanbul is the primary hub of Turkish media. The industry has its roots in the former Ottoman capital, where the first Turkish newspaper, Takvim-i Vekayi (Calendar of Affairs), was published in 1831. The Cağaloğlu street on which the newspaper was printed, Bâb-ı Âli TRT-Children is the only TRT television station based in Street, rapidly became the center of Turkish print media, Istanbul.[268] Istanbul is home to the headquarters of sevalongside Beyoğlu across the Golden Horn.[263] eral Turkish stations and regional headquarters of interToday, Istanbul hosts a wide variety of periodicals. Most national media outlets. Istanbul-based Star TV was the nationwide newspapers are based in Istanbul, with simul- first private television network to be established followtaneous Ankara and İzmir editions.[264] Istanbul-based ing the end of the TRT monopoly; Star TV and Show TV Zaman, although only founded in 1986, is Turkey’s (also based in Istanbul) remain highly popular throughmost widely circulated paper, with a weekly distribu- out the country, airing Turkish and American series.[269] tion of more than one million, twice that of its near- Samanyolu TV, Kanal D, and ATV are other stations in est competitor. Posta, Hürriyet, and Sözcü, which round Istanbul that offer a mix of news and series; NTV (partout the country’s top four papers, are all headquartered nered with U.S. media outlet MSNBC) and Sky Turk— in Istanbul, boasting more than 300,000 weekly sales both based in the city—are mainly just known for their each. Hürriyet's English-language edition, The Hür- news coverage in Turkish. The BBC has a regional of-

17 fice in Istanbul, assisting its Turkish-language news operations, and the American news channel CNN established the Turkish-language CNN Türk there in 1999.[270] The Istanbul-based business and entertainment channel CNBC-e began broadcasting in 2000.

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Education

Further information: Education in Turkey Istanbul University, founded in 1453, is the oldest Turk-

Established in 1863, Robert College has been an American boarding school since its higher education section became Boğaziçi University in 1971.

an American philanthropist, and Cyrus Hamlin, a missionary devoted to education, in 1863. The tertiary element of its education program became the public Boğaziçi University in 1971; the remaining portion in Arnavutköy continues as a boarding high-school under the name Robert College.[276][277] Private universities were officially outlawed in Turkey before the Constitution of 1982, but there were already fifteen private “higher schools”, which were effectively universities, in Istanbul by 1970. The first private university established in Istanbul since 1982 was Koç University (founded in 1992), and another dozen had opened within the following decade.[276] Today, there are at least 30 private universities in the city, including Istanbul Commerce University and Kadir Has University.[278] A new biomedical research and development hub, called Bio Istanbul, is under construction in Başakşehir, and will host 15,000 resiMain entrance gate of Istanbul University, the city’s oldest Turk- dents, 20,000 working commuters, and a university upon ish institution, established in 1453. completion.[279][280] ish educational institution in the city. Although originally an Islamic school, the university established law, medicine, and science departments in the 19th century and was secularized after the founding of the Turkish Republic.[271] Istanbul Technical University, founded in 1773 as the Royal School of Naval Engineering, is the world’s third-oldest university dedicated entirely to engineering sciences.[272][273] These public universities are two of just eight across the city;[274] other prominent state universities in Istanbul include the Mimar Sinan Fine Arts University, which served as Turkey’s primary institution of art until the 1970s,[220] and Marmara University, the country’s third-largest institution of higher learning.[275] Most established universities in Istanbul are backed by the government; the city also has several prominent private institutions. The first modern private university in Istanbul, also the oldest American school in existence in its original location outside the United States, was Robert College, founded by Christopher Robert,

In 2007, there were about 4,350 schools, about half of which were primary schools; on average, each school had 688 students. In recent years, Istanbul’s educational system has expanded substantially; from 2000 to 2007, the number of classrooms and teachers nearly doubled and the number of students increased by more than 60 percent.[281] Galatasaray High School, established in 1481 as the Galata Palace Imperial School, is the oldest high school in Istanbul and the second-oldest educational institution in the city. It was built at the behest of Sultan Bayezid II, who sought to bring students with diverse backgrounds together as a means of strengthening his growing empire.[282] It is one of Turkey’s Anatolian High Schools, elite public high schools that place a stronger emphasis on instruction in foreign languages. Galatasaray, for example, offers instruction in French; other Anatolian High Schools primarily teach in English or German alongside Turkish.[283][284] The city also has foreign high schools, such as Liceo Italiano, that were established in the 19th century to educate foreigners.[285]

18

13

Kuleli Military High School, along the shores of the Bosphorus in Çengelköy, and Turkish Naval High School, located on one of the Princes’ Islands, are military high schools, complemented by three military academies— the Turkish Air Force, Turkish Military, and Turkish Naval Academies. Darüşşafaka High School provides free education to children across the country missing at least one parent. Darüşşafaka begins instruction with the fourth grade, providing instruction in English and, starting in sixth grade, a second foreign language—German or French.[286] Other prominent high schools in the city include Kabataş Erkek Lisesi (founded in 1908)[287] and Kadıköy Anadolu Lisesi (founded in 1955).[288]

13

PUBLIC SERVICES

power station reached the end of its economic life and shut down in 1983.[292] The state-run Turkish Electrical Authority (TEK) briefly—between its founding in 1970 and 1984—held a monopoly on the generation and distribution of electricity, but now the authority—since split between the Turkish Electricity Generation Transmission Company (TEAŞ) and the Turkish Electricity Distribution Company (TEDAŞ)—competes with private electric utilities.[293]

Public services

Main article: Utilities in Istanbul Further information: Telecommunications in Turkey and Health care in Turkey Istanbul’s first water supply systems date back to the

Istanbul’s current central post office dates back to 1909.[294]

The Silahtarağa Power Station, now the art museum SantralIstanbul, was Istanbul’s sole source of power between 1914 and 1952.

The Ottoman Ministry of Post and Telegraph was established in 1840 and the first post office, the Imperial Post Office, opened near the courtyard of Yeni Mosque. By 1876, the first international mailing network between Istanbul and the lands beyond the Ottoman Empire had been established.[295] Sultan Abdülmecid I issued Samuel Morse his first official honor for the telegraph in 1847, and construction of the first telegraph line—between Istanbul and Edirne—finished in time to announce the end of the Crimean War in 1856.[296] A nascent telephone system began to emerge in Istanbul in 1881 and after the first manual telephone exchange became operational in Istanbul in 1909, the Ministry of Post and Telegraph became the Ministry of Post, Telegraph, and Telephone.[295][297] GSM cellular networks arrived in Turkey in 1994, with Istanbul among the first cities to receive the service.[298] Today, mobile and landline service is provided by private companies, after Türk Telekom, which split from the Ministry of Post, Telegraph, and Telephone in 1995, was privatized in 2005.[295][298] Postal services remain under the purview of what is now the Post and Telegraph Organization (retaining the acronym PTT).[295]

city’s early history, when aqueducts (such as the Valens Aqueduct) deposited the water in the city’s numerous cisterns.[289] At the behest of Suleiman the Magnificent, the Kırkçeşme water supply network was constructed; by 1563, the network provided 4,200 cubic meters (150,000 cu ft) of water to 158 sites each day.[289] In later years, in response to increasing public demand, water from various springs was channeled to public fountains, like the Fountain of Ahmed III, by means of supply lines.[290] Today, Istanbul has a chlorinated and filtered water supply and a sewage treatment system managed by the Istanbul Water and Sewerage Administration (İSKİ).[291] In 2000, Istanbul had 137 hospitals, of which 100 were The Silahtarağa Power Station, a coal-fired power plant private.[299] Turkish citizens are entitled to subsidized along the Golden Horn, was the sole source of Istan- healthcare in the nation’s state-run hospitals.[264] As pubbul’s electricity between 1914, when its first engine room lic hospitals tend to be overcrowded or otherwise slow, was completed, and 1952.[292] Following the founding of private hospitals are preferable for those who can afford the Turkish Republic, the plant underwent renovations them. Their prevalence has increased significantly over to accommodate the city’s increasing demand; its capac- the last decade, as the percentage of outpatients using ity grew from 23 megawatts in 1923 to a peak of 120 private hospitals increased from 6 percent to 23 percent megawatts in 1956.[292][293] Capacity declined until the between 2005 and 2009.[264][300] Many of these private

19 hospitals, as well as some of the public hospitals, are equipped with high-tech equipment, including MRI machines, or associated with medical research centers.[301] Turkey has more hospitals accredited by the U.S.-based Joint Commission than any other country in the world, with most concentrated in its big cities. The high quality of healthcare, especially in private hospitals, has contributed to a recent upsurge in medical tourism to Turkey (with a 40 percent increase between 2007 and 2008).[302] Laser eye surgery is particularly common among medical tourists, as Turkey is known for specializing in the procedure.[303]

14

Transportation

Main article: Public transport in Istanbul Istanbul’s primary motorways are the O-1, O-2, O-3 and

Istanbul’s nostalgic and modern tram systems.

Istanbul’s local public transportation system is a complex network of trams, funiculars, metro lines, buses, bus rapid transit, and ferries. Fares across modes are integrated, using the contactless Istanbulkart, introduced in 2009, or the older Akbil electronic ticket device.[308] Trams in Istanbul date back to 1872, when they were horse-drawn, but even the first electrified trams were decommissioned in the 1960s.[309] Operated by Istanbul Electricity, Tramway, and Tunnel General Management (İETT), trams slowly returned to the city in the 1990s with the introduction of a nostalgic route and a faster modern tram line, which now carries 265,000 passen[309][310] The Tünel opened in 1875 as the The Fatih Sultan Mehmet Bridge is one of two suspension bridges gers each day. world’s second-oldest subterranean rail line (after Lonon the Bosphorus. The third bridge (Yavuz Sultan Selim Bridge) [309] It still carries passenis under construction near the strait's northern entrance along the don’s Metropolitan Railway). gers between Karaköy and İstiklal Avenue along a steep Black Sea coast. 573-meter (1,880 ft) track; a more modern funicular between Taksim Square and Kabataş began running in O-4. The O-1 forms the city’s inner ring road, travers- 2006.[311][312] ing the Bosphorus Bridge, and the O-2 is the city’s outer ring road, crossing the Fatih Sultan Mehmet (Second Bosphorus) Bridge. The O-2 continues west to Edirne and the O-4 continues east to Ankara; the O-2, O-3, and O-4 are part of European route E80 (the TransEuropean Motorway) between Portugal and the Turkish– Iranian border.[304] The two Bosphorus Bridges are currently the only road crossings between the Asian and European sides of Turkey, together carrying 400,000 vehicles each day.[305] The dual-deck, 14.6-kilometer (9.1 mi) Eurasia Tunnel is currently under construction beneath the Bosphorus, between Fatih and Üsküdar.[306] A third Bosphorus bridge, first considered in the 1990s, may also finally be coming to fruition, as construction of the Yavuz Sultan Selim Bridge was officially launched in 2013.[307] Both projects may be completed as early as Levent station of the Istanbul Metro 2015, although environmentalist groups worry that the third bridge will endanger the remaining green areas to The Istanbul Metro comprises three lines (the M1 and M2 on the European side, and the M4 on the Asian side) the north of Istanbul.[306][307]

20 with several other lines (such as the M3, M5, M7, and M6 Mini-Metro) and extensions under construction.[313][314] The two sides of Istanbul’s metro are connected under the Bosphorus by the Marmaray tunnel, inaugurated in 2013 as the first rail connection between Thrace and Anatolia.[315] With the Marmaray’s completion, rail use in the city is expected to increase to 28 percent (from 4 percent), behind only Tokyo and New York City.[316] Until then, buses provide transportation within and between the two halves of the city, accommodating 2.2 million passenger trips each day.[317] The Metrobus, a form of bus rapid transit, crosses the Bosphorus Bridge, with dedicated lanes leading to its termini.[318] İDO (Istanbul Seabuses) runs a combination of all-passenger ferries and car-and-passenger ferries to ports on both sides of the Bosphorus, as far north as the Black Sea.[319][320] With additional destinations around the Sea of Marmara, İDO runs the largest municipal ferry operation in the world.[321] The city’s main cruise ship terminal is the Port of Istanbul in Karaköy, with a capacity of 10,000 passengers per hour.[322] Most visitors enter Istanbul by air, but about half a million foreign tourists enter the city by sea each year.[215]

Originally opened in 1873 with a smaller terminal building as the main terminus of the Rumelia (Balkan) Railway of the Ottoman Empire, which connected Istanbul with Vienna; the current Sirkeci Terminal building was constructed between 1888 and 1890, and became the eastern terminus of the Orient Express from Paris.

International rail service from Istanbul launched in 1889, with a line between Bucharest and Istanbul’s Sirkeci Terminal, which ultimately became famous as the eastern terminus of the Orient Express from Paris.[79] Regular service to Bucharest and Thessaloniki continued until the early 2010s, when the former was interrupted for Marmaray construction and the latter was halted due to economic problems in Greece.[323][324] After Istanbul’s Haydarpaşa Terminal opened in 1908, it served as the western terminus of the Baghdad Railway and an extension of the Hejaz Railway; today, neither service is offered directly from Istanbul.[325][326][327] Service to Ankara and other points across Turkey is normally offered by Turkish State Railways, but the construction of Marmaray and the Ankara-Istanbul high-speed line forced the station to close in 2012.[328] New stations to replace both the Haydarpaşa and Sirkeci terminals, and connect the city’s disjointed railway networks, are expected to open upon completion of the Marmaray project; until then, Istanbul is without intercity rail service.[328]

16

SEE ALSO

Private bus companies operate instead. Istanbul’s main bus station is the largest in Europe, with a daily capacity of 15,000 buses and 600,000 passengers, serving destinations as distant as Frankfurt.[329][330]

Istanbul Atatürk Airport, which handled 51.2 million passengers in 2013,[331] is the city’s primary airport.

Istanbul has two international airports. The larger is Istanbul Atatürk, 24 kilometers (15 mi) west of the city center. It handled 51.2 million passengers in 2013, making it the fifth-busiest airport in Europe and the eighteenth-busiest in the world.[331] Sabiha Gökçen International, 45 kilometers (28 mi) southeast of the city center, opened in 2001 to relieve Atatürk. Dominated by low-cost carriers, Istanbul’s second airport has rapidly become popular, especially since the opening of a new international terminal in 2009;[332] the airport handled 14.7 million passengers in 2012, a year after Airports Council International named it the world’s fastest-growing airport.[333][334] Atatürk has also experienced rapid growth, as its 20.6 percent rise in passenger traffic between 2011 and 2012 was the highest among the world’s top 30 airports.[331] Because of the traffic at Istanbul’s current airports,[335] a third international airport is planned for the Black Sea coast.[336] Building a new runway at Atatürk Airport was rejected due to the cost involved;[335] environmental concerns have also been raised with respect to the new airport.[337] Currently under construction, the new international airport will become the largest airport in the world upon the completion of all four stages of the project, with a capacity to serve 150 million passengers per year.[338][339][340]

15 Sister and twin cities • List of twin and sister cities of Istanbul

16 See also • Historic Areas of Istanbul, a World Heritage Site

21

17

Notes

[1] The foundation of Byzantion (Byzantium) is sometimes, especially in encyclopedic or other tertiary sources, placed firmly in 667 BCE. Historians have disputed the precise year the city was founded. Commonly cited is the work of 5th-century-BC historian Herodotus, which says the city was founded seventeen years after Chalcedon,[44] which came into existence around 685 BCE. Eusebius concurs with 685 BCE as the year Chalcedon was founded, but places Byzantion’s establishment in 659 BCE.[45] Among more modern historians, Carl Roebuck proposed the 640s BCE[46] and others have suggested even later. The foundation date of Chalcedon is itself subject to some debate; while many sources place it in 685 BC,[47] others put it in 675 BC[48] or even 639 BCE (with Byzantion’s establishment placed in 619 BCE).[45] Some sources refer to Byzantium’s foundation as the 7th century BCE. [2] The name Istanbul has been in use since before the 1453 Ottoman conquest, but in English Istanbul became common only after Turkey adapted the Latin alphabet in 1928 and urged other countries to use the city’s Turkish name. [1] Districts 39Government • Mayor Kadir Topbaş (AKP)Area[2][3][lower-alpha 3] • Urban 1,166 - 1,830 km2 (459 sq mi) • Metro 5,343 km2 (2,063 sq mi)Population (31 December 2015)[4][5][6] • City 14,025,646 • Rank 1st • Density 7,664 - 12,029/km2 (−23,490/sq mi) • Urban 14,100,000 • Metro 14,657,434 • Metro density 2,691/km2 (6,970/sq mi)Demonym(s) Istanbulite(s) (Turkish: İstanbullu(lar))Time zone EET (UTC+2) • Summer (DST) EEST (UTC+3)Postal code 34000 to 34990Area code(s) 0212 (European side) 0216 (Asian side)Vehicle registration 34Website The official website of Istanbul“Istanbul’s official website opens - TOURISM”. hurriyetdailynews.com. [3] Sources have provided conflicting figures on the area of Istanbul. The most authoritative source on this figure ought to be the Istanbul Metropolitan Municipality (MMI), but the English version of its website suggests a few figures for this area. One page states that “Each MM is sub-divided into District Municipalities (“DM”) of which there are 27 in Istanbul" [emphasis added] with a total area of 1,538.9 square kilometers (594.2 sq mi).[87] The Municipal History page appears to be the most explicit and most updated, saying that in 2004, “Istanbul Metropolitan Municipality’s jurisdiction was enlarged to cover all the area within the provincial limits”. It also states a 2008 law merged the Eminönü district into the Fatih district (a point that is not reflected in the previous source) and increased the number of districts in Istanbul to 39.[88] That total area, as corroborated on the Turkish version of the MMI website,[89] and a Jurisdiction page on the English site[90] is 5,343 square kilometers (2,063 sq mi). [4] Historians disagree—sometimes substantially—on population figures of Istanbul (Constantinople), and other world cities, prior to the 20th century. A follow-up to Chandler & Fox 1974,Chandler 1987, pp. 463– 505[76] examines different sources’ estimates and chooses the most likely based on historical conditions; it is the source of most population figures between 100 and 1914. The ranges of values between 500 and 1000 are due to

Morris 2010, which also does a comprehensive analysis of sources, including Chandler (1987); Morris notes that many of Chandler’s estimates during that time seem too large for the city’s size, and presents smaller estimates. Chandler disagrees with Turan 2010 on the population of the city in the mid-1920s (with the former suggesting 817,000 in 1925), but Turan, p. 224, is used as the source of population figures between 1924 and 2005. Turan’s figures, as well as the 2010 figure,[156] come from the Turkish Statistical Institute. The drastic increase in population between 1980 and 1985 is largely due to an enlargement of the city’s limits (see the Administration section). Explanations for population changes in pre-Republic times can be inferred from the History section. [5] The United Nations defines an urban agglomeration as “the population contained within the contours of a contiguous territory inhabited at urban density levels without regard to administrative boundaries”. The agglomeration “usually incorporates the population in a city or town plus that in the suburban areas lying outside of, but being adjacent to, the city boundaries”.[162] Figures dated 1 July 2011 place the populations of the agglomerations of Moscow and Istanbul at 11.62 million and 11.25 million, respectively.[163] The UN estimates that the agglomeration of Istanbul will exceed the agglomeration of Moscow in population by 2015 (with 12.46 million and 12.14 million, respectively), although extrapolation suggests that the former will not surpass latter until the second half of 2013. A revision with 2013 data is due in the first half of 2014.[162] [6] UEFA does not apparently keep a list of Category 4 stadiums, but regulations stipulate that only these elite stadiums are eligible to host UEFA Champions League Finals,[249] which Atatürk Olympic Stadium did in 2005, and UEFA Europa League (formerly UEFA Cup) Finals,[250] which Şükrü Saracoğlu Stadium did in 2009. Türk Telekom Arena is noted as an elite UEFA stadium by its architects.[251]

18 References [1] Room 2006, pp. 177 [2] “City mayors:Largest cities in the world by land area, population and density”. citymayors.com. Retrieved 26 June 2015. [3] Brown, DR. Evrick. Walking in the European City. [4] “Turkey: Provinces and Major Cities”. www.citytpopulation.de. Citypopulation. 31 December 2014. Retrieved 26 June 2015. The population of the Turkish cities and provinces according to census results and latest register-based tabulations [5] “All urban agglomerations of the world with a population of 1 million inhabitants or more”. www.citypopulation.de. Citypopulation. 1 April 2015. Retrieved 26 June 2015. [6] “The Results of Address Based Population Registration System, 2015”. Turkish Statistical Institute. 31 December 2015. Retrieved 28 January 2016.

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[7] Wells, John C. (2008), Longman Pronunciation Dictionary (3rd ed.), Longman, ISBN 9781405881180 [8] Roach, Peter (2011), Cambridge English Pronouncing Dictionary (18th ed.), Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, ISBN 9780521152532 [9] WCTR Society; Unʼyu Seisaku Kenkyū Kikō 2004, p. 281 [10] “conterminous”. wiktionary.org. [11] Çelik 1993, p. xv [12] Masters & Ágoston 2009, pp. 114–5

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[48] Freely 1996, p. 10 [49] Çelik 1993, p. 11 [50] De Souza 2003, p. 88 [51] Freely 1996, p. 20

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[55] Barnes 1981, p. 77

[30] Room 2006, pp. 177–8

[57] Barnes 1981, p. 222

[31] Göktürk, Soysal & Türeli 2010, p. 7

[58] Gregory 2010, p. 63

[32] Miklagard (The Great City)

[59] Klimczuk & Warner 2009, p. 171

[53] Grant 1996, pp. 8–10

[56] Barnes 1981, p. 212

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[99] Efe & Cürebal 2011, pp. 716–7

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• Kapucu, Naim; Palabiyik, Hamit (2008). Turkish Public Administration: From Tradition to the Modern Age. USAK Publications 17. Ankara: USAK. ISBN 978-605-4030-01-9.

• Necipoğlu, Gülru (1991). Architecture, Ceremonial, and Power: The Topkapi Palace in the Fifteenth and Sixteenth Centuries. Cambridge, Mass.: The MIT Press. ISBN 978-0-262-14050-8.

• Karpat, Kemal H. (1976). The Gecekondu: Rural Migration and Urbanization (illustrated ed.). Cambridge, Eng.: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-20954-0.

• Necipoğlu, Gülru (2010). “From Byzantine Constantinople to Ottoman Kostantiniyye”. In ölcer, Nazan. From Byzantion to Istanbul. Istanbul: SSM. ISBN 978-605-4348-04-6.

• Keyder, Çağlar, ed. (1999). Istanbul: Between the Global and the Local. Lanham, Md.: Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN 978-0-8476-9495-2.

• Norris, Pippa (2010). Public Sentinel: News Media & Governance Reform. Washington, D.C.: World Bank Publications. ISBN 978-0-8213-8200-4.

• King, Charles (2014). Midnight at the Pera Palace, The birth of modern Istanbul. Norton & Cy. ISBN 9780393089141-.

• Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (2008). Istanbul, Turkey. OECD Territorial Reviews. Paris: OECD Publishing. ISBN 978-92-64-04371-8.

• Klimczuk, Stephen; Warner, Gerald (2009). Secret Places, Hidden Sanctuaries: Uncovering Mysterious Sights, Symbols, and Societies. New York: Sterling Publishing Company, Inc. ISBN 978-1-4027-62079.

• Oxford Business Group (2009). The Report: Turkey 2009. Oxford, Eng.: Oxford Business Group. ISBN 978-1-902339-13-9.

• Knieling, Jörg; Othengrafen, Frank (2009). Planning Cultures in Europe: Decoding Cultural Phenomena in Urban and Regional Planning. Urban and Regional Planning and Development. Surrey, Eng.: Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. ISBN 978-0-7546-75655.

• Papathanassis, Alexis (2011). The Long Tail of Tourism: Holiday Niches and Their Impact on Mainstream Tourism. Berlin: Springer. ISBN 978-38349-3062-0. • Quantic, Roy (2008). Climatology for Airline Pilots. Oxford, Eng.: John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-0470-69847-1.

• Köksal, Özlem, ed. (2012). World Film Locations: Istanbul. Bristol, Eng.: Intellect Books. ISBN 9781-84150-567-1.

• Reinert, Stephen W. (2002). “Fragmentation (1204–1453)". In Mango, Cyril. The Oxford History of Byzantium. Oxford, Eng.: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-814098-6.

• Köse, Yavuz (2009). “Vertical Bazaars of Modernity: Western Department Stores and Their Staff in Istanbul (1889–1921)". In Atabaki, Touraj; Brockett, Gavin. Ottoman and Republican Turkish Labour History. Cambridge, Eng.: Cambridge University Press. pp. 91–114. ISBN 978-0-521-12805-6.

• Reisman, Arnold (2006). Turkey’s Modernization: Refugees from Nazism and Atatürk’s Vision. Washington, D.C.: New Academia Publishing, LLC. ISBN 978-0-9777908-8-3.

• Landau, Jacob M. (1984). Atatürk and the Modernization of Turkey. Leiden, the Neth.: E.J. Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-07070-7. • Limberis, Vasiliki (1994). Divine Heiress: The Virgin Mary and the Creation of Christian Constantinople. London: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-096775.

• Roebuck, Carl (1959). Ionian Trade and Colonization. Monographs on Archaeology and Fine Arts. New York: Archaeological Institute of America. ISBN 978-0-89005-528-1. • Room, Adrian (2006). Placenames of the World: Origins and Meanings of the Names for 6,600 Countries, Cities, Territories, Natural Features, and Historic Sites (2nd ed.). Jefferson, N.C.: McFarland & Company. ISBN 978-0-7864-2248-7.

32 • Rôzen, Mînnā (2002). A History of the Jewish Community in Istanbul: The Formative Years, 1453– 1566 (illustrated ed.). Leiden, the Neth.: BRILL. ISBN 978-90-04-12530-8. • Sanal, Aslihan (2011). Fischer, Michael M. J.; Dumit, Joseph, eds. New Organs Within Us: Transplants and the Moral Economy. Experimental Futures (illustrated ed.). Chapel Hill, N.C.: Duke University Press. ISBN 978-0-8223-4912-9. • Schmitt, Oliver Jens (2005). Levantiner: Lebenswelten und Identitäten einer ethnokonfessionellen Gruppe im osmanischen Reich im “langen 19. Jahrhundert” (in German). München: Oldenbourg. ISBN 978-3-486-57713-6. • Shaw, Stanford J.; Shaw, Ezel K. (1977). History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey 2. Cambridge, Eng.: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-29166-8. • Tarasov, Oleg; Milner-Gulland, R. R. (2004). Icon and Devotion: Sacred Spaces in Imperial Russia. London: Reaktion. ISBN 1-86189-118-0.

19

EXTERNAL LINKS

• Wynn, Martin (1984). Planning and Urban Growth in Southern Europe. Studies in History, Planning, and the Environment. Los Altos, Calif.: Mansell. ISBN 978-0-7201-1608-3.

19 External links • Official website of Istanbul • Official website of the Istanbul Metropolitan Municipality • Official website of the Istanbul Governorship • Istanbul Metropolitan Municipality: Interactive aerial photos (maps) of Istanbul from 1946, 1966, 1982, and 2005 • Istanbul Metropolitan Municipality: Live views of major landmarks in Istanbul • Istanbul Metropolitan Municipality: Istanbul Bulteni Magazine official website

• Taşan-Kok, Tuna (2004). Budapest, Istanbul, and Coordinates: 41°00′49″N 28°57′18″E / 41.01361°N Warsaw: Institutional and Spatial Change. Delft, the 28.95500°E Neth.: Eburon Uitgeverij B.V. ISBN 978-90-5972041-1. • Taylor, Jane (2007). Imperial Istanbul: A Traveller’s Guide: Includes Iznik, Bursa and Edirne. New York: Tauris Parke Paperbacks. ISBN 978-1-84511-3346. • Tigrek, Sahnaz; Kibaroğlu, Ayșegül (2011). “Strategic Role of Water Resources for Turkey”. In Kibaroğlu, Ayșegül; Scheumann, Waltina; Kramer, Annika. Turkey’s Water Policy: National Frameworks and International Cooperation. London & New York: Springer. ISBN 978-3-642-19635-5. • Time Out Guides, ed. (2010). Time Out Istanbul. London: Time Out Guides. ISBN 978-1-84670115-3. • Turan, Neyran (2010). “Towards an Ecological Urbanism for Istanbul”. In Sorensen, André; Okata, Junichiro. Megacities: Urban Form, Governance, and Sustainability. Library for Sustainable Urban Regeneration. London & New York: Springer. pp. 223–42. ISBN 978-4-431-99266-0. • WCTR Society; Unʼyu Seisaku Kenkyū Kikō (2004). Urban Transport and the Environment: An International Perspective. Amsterdam: Elsevier. ISBN 978-0-08-044512-0. • Wedel, Heidi (2000). Ibrahim, Ferhad; Gürbey, Gülistan, eds. The Kurdish Conflict in Turkey. Berlin: LIT Verlag Münster. pp. 181–93. ISBN 978-3-8258-4744-9.

33

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Ardas48, Onibr and Anonymous: 1689

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• File:Adalar_5536.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9e/Adalar_5536.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: User:Darwinek • File:Aivazovsky_-_View_of_Constantinople_and_the_Bosphorus.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ e3/Aivazovsky_-_View_of_Constantinople_and_the_Bosphorus.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.sothebys.com/ru/ auctions/ecatalogue/2012/the-orientalist-sale/lot.6.html Original artist: Ivan Aivazovsky • File:Ali_Sami_Yen_Spor_Kompleksi_Türk_Telekom_Arena2.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/05/ Ali_Sami_Yen_Spor_Kompleksi_T%C3%BCrk_Telekom_Arena2.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Qwl • File:Allom_-_Constantinople.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fa/Allom_-_Constantinople.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ? 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TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

• File:Flag_of_Nigeria.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/79/Flag_of_Nigeria.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Flag_of_Pakistan.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/32/Flag_of_Pakistan.svg License: Public domain Contributors: The drawing and the colors were based from flagspot.net. Original artist: User:Zscout370 • File:Flag_of_Peru.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cf/Flag_of_Peru.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Peru Original artist: David Benbennick • File:Flag_of_Russia.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg License: PD Contributors: ? 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Original artist: ? • File:Flag_of_the_United_States.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg License: PD Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Fog-over-istanbul-skyscrapers.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0d/ Fog-over-istanbul-skyscrapers.jpg License: CC BY 2.0 Contributors: fog over Istanbul skyscrapers Original artist: John Walker from Chicago • File:Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/48/Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg License: Cc-bysa-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Galata_Kulesi_'nden_panorama.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ea/Galata_Kulesi_%27nden_ panorama.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Transferred from tr.wikipedia; transfer was stated to be made by User:Kenzhigaliyev. Original artist: Original uploader was Cansız at tr.wikipedia • File:Grand-Bazaar_Shop.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fa/Grand-Bazaar_Shop.jpg License: CC BYSA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Dmgultekin • File:Greeks_in_Istanbul_1844_1997.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/21/Greeks_in_Istanbul_1844_ 1997.png License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: *Kamouzis Dimitrios, The Constantinopolitan Greeks in an era of secular nationalism, mid-19th century to 1930, 2010, University of London. King’s College. Department of Byzantine and Modern Greek Studies, p. 32. Original artist: Alexikoua • File:Istambul_and_Bosporus_big.jpg Source: jpg License: Public domain Contributors:

https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e4/Istambul_and_Bosporus_big.

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• File:Istanbul_Koppen_Map.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/19/Istanbul_Koppen_Map.png License: CC BY-SA 4.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Berkserker • File:Istanbul_Municipality_City_Hall.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a7/Istanbul_Municipality_ City_Hall.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:%C4%B0stanbul_5883.jpg Original artist: User:Darwinek • File:Istanbul_T1_line_Alstom_Citadis_tram.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/85/Istanbul_T1_line_ Alstom_Citadis_tram.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Sefjo • File:Istanbul_University_cropped.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cf/Istanbul_University_cropped. 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• File:Symbol_information_vote.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8c/Symbol_information_vote.svg License: Public domain Contributors: handmade Original artist: Theoteryi • File:Taksim_Square_2012.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9d/Taksim_Square_2012.jpg License: CC BY 2.0 Contributors: Flickr: Istanbul Original artist: FaceMePLS • File:Topkapı_-_01.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/06/Topkap%C4%B1_-_01.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Carlos Delgado • File:Turkey-3019_-_Hagia_Sophia_(2216460729).jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/97/Turkey-3019_ -_Hagia_Sophia_%282216460729%29.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.0 Contributors: Turkey-3019 - Hagia Sophia Original artist: Dennis Jarvis from Halifax, Canada • File:Turkey_location_map.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/52/Turkey_location_map.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work, using • United States National Imagery and Mapping Agency data • World Data Base II data Original artist: NordNordWest • File:Türkiye_İstanbul_nostalji_iki_tramvay_karşılaşması.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/46/T% C3%BCrkiye_%C4%B0stanbul_nostalji_iki_tramvay_kar%C5%9F%C4%B1la%C5%9Fmas%C4%B1.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: nnevid • File:View_of_constantinople_by_evening_light.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4a/View_of_ constantinople_by_evening_light.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: The Athenaeum: Home - info - pic via wikipaintings.org Original artist: Ivan Aivazovsky • File:West-turkey-plates-cropped.gif Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f0/West-turkey-plates-cropped.gif License: Public domain Contributors: http://neic.usgs.gov/neis/eq_depot/2003/eq_030501/neic_tgac_maps.html Original artist: U.S. Geological Survey • File:Wikibooks-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: User:Bastique, User:Ramac et al. • File:Wikinews-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/24/Wikinews-logo.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: This is a cropped version of Image:Wikinews-logo-en.png. 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