The Amerindians of the Lesser Antilles. From first settlement to the onset of European colonization At the end of the 15th century, when European navigators first reach the islands of the Lesser Anttiles, they discover a society that astounds them and horrifies them in equal measure, one that they characterize as cannibalistic, and that differs entirely from that of the islands of the Greater Antilles. The "Taino-Arawak" of the larger islands are as gentle as the "Carib" of the smaller islands are anthropophagous. This trait and mutual distinction appear to hide all other aspects of these societies. But all of the initial testimonies, the majority of which is very fragmentary, are marked by the burden of the European imagination of the time. If the archives preserve any traces of contact between the Spanish and the Carib at all, they hardly address anything but detailed events: attacks, raids, massacres. The Spanish rapidly lose interest in the populations of these islands. From now on, the great American empires are their central preoccupation. Not until the 17th century French, English and Dutch colonizations, which once more spill out Europeans onto the beaches of these islands, do we receive fresh reports of this unknown world that they encounter and mean to populate, in the face of staunch resistance. But were these "Island Caribs" of the Lesser Antilles the same as those encountered during the era of discovery? Though the accounts of the chroniclers in the main depict a quasi-static world, historians know that the Carib world has certainly changed over one or two centuries, a fact confirmed indirectly by a number of authors. These changes are likely neither the first, nor the only changes. It is to the research into the Carib Amerindians that we have dedicated this quest, which runs from the pre-Columbian migrations up to the French colonization in the 17th century.

Abstracts In search of a lost Caribbean – B. GRUNBERG, É. ROULET & B. ROUX The history of the Caribbean islands has long been shrouded in darkness. This lack of understanding is in part related to the sources themselves, though not entirely. To arrive at an understanding of Island Carib culture, one needs to seek recourse to a dual documentation: the written sources and archaeological data. The end goal of the ANR program that we present here is to bring together the collection of original documents written mainly in the 17th century and to attempt to make a synthesis of the archaeological discoveries in the Lesser Antilles, particularly those within the region that fell under French control from 1625-1635 onwards. The integral re-transcription of the sources as well as their transformation into a modern form of French was meant to aid in their greater diffusion, especially as the project aims to offer to one and all the totality of information gathered. As such, anyone can have at their disposal, embedded within a sound scientific framework, all the necessary elements for an understanding of these Amerindian populations at the start of the European expansion in Lesser Antilles. In search of an archaeological Caribbean – B. BÉRARD When the Europeans arrived in the Lesser Antilles they came into contact with its Amerindian in-habitants whom they called "Caribs". This encounter led to the establishment of a significant text corpus concerning these peoples between the fifteenth and the eighteenth century. Ever since archaeological research began in the archipelago and up until today, establishing a link between those historic texts and the archaeological findings has been one of the archaeologists’ main objectives. We will present here a review of the works concerning this issue. By so doing, we will be able to observe the progressive transformation of the relationship between the archaeologists and the text sources and their changing usage. This transformation is related to a historical and archaeological discussion on the real value of European texts on Lesser Antilles Amerindians. The late Amerindian occupation of the Windward Islands (Antilles) and the archaeological use of ethnohistorical sources – A. J. BRIGHT & C. L. HOFMAN Archaeologists must out of necessity take a multi-disciplinary approach to arrive at sound interpretations of the enigmatic archaeological record. As such, they draw inspiration fromethnography, ethnohistory, as well as philosophy, biology and other disciplines. Caribbean archaeologists are in the fortunate position 1

of having at their disposal numerous rich ethnohistorical sources that shed light on Amerindian lifeways in the region from the 16th to the 18th century. In this paper, the authors examine the use of ethnohistorical sources by archaeologists and offer some examples of archaeological issues that can be illuminated by recourse to these sources. The funerary cave of Cadet 2 ( Marie-Galante, Guadeloupe) and the question of cannibalism – P. COURTAUD The practice of cannibalism is closely tied to the Caribbean populations. While the testimonies and the ancient texts of the first explorers are numerous, archaeological evidence is notably scarce. The sepulchral cave of Cadet, located along south coast of Marie-Galante (Guadeloupe), has yielded serious indications of this type of cadaveral treatment. Archaeological research led to the discovery of human remains, a great number of which exhibited surface modifications (toolmarks) related to disarticulation and the removal of soft tissue. The association with archaeological remains such as ceramics and a lithic axe constitute indications of a veritable funerary practice, and so dispel the possibility of circumstantial or occasional cannibalism. This cave was used during the "peri-contact" contemporaneously to indigenous Caribbean culture. In this contribution we detail the archaeological and biological studies which have yielded original data for the Lesser Antilles. The Carib language lexicon of the Carprentras manuscript (1620) – S. de PURY-TOUMI The second part of theCarpentras manuscript, that deals with the encounter between the Amerindi-ans of Dominica and the French in 1619, is dotted with words in the Çarib “language”. The study of this lexicon and its comparison with the Carib dictionary of Father Breton and with the present-day Garifuna language demonstrate that the author truly recorded the cited words from the mouths of his indigenous interlocutors. The lexicon yields social and cultural information, and is sensitive to societal change. The article advances an analysis of several of the words cited in the manuscript. The first part illustrates the linguistic interchange between the various groups. Next, etymological avenues are explored that offer some insights into the conception of Carib divinities. The goal of the research is to attempt to avoid interpretations grounded in Europeanlanguage categories . The Caribbean Amerindians as seenby Gonzalo Fernández de Oviedo: drawings and engravings – P. LESBRE Drawings and engravings in the monumental oeuvre of Gonzalo Fernández de Oviedo allow the recognition of aspects that appear to have attracted the chronicler’s prime attention (Sumario of 1526 or Historia General of 1535 and 1547). We will draw attention to the synthesis that Oviedo establishes of the various Amerindians of the Caribbean, before touching on certain characteristics of these Amerindians, that are accompanied by explicatory drawings or engravings: emblematic objects (hammock, canoe), tools (bâton à feu, stone axe), habitations (caney, rectangular or round huts) and victuals (yuca). All this will bring us to ask ourselves what the aim was of these detailed descriptions: might we be dealing, first and foremost, with practical information intended for the future Spanish colonists? Even if their Colonial character is undeniable, they often betray a positive view of the Caribbean Amerindians, far removed from the hardly flattering view of the author painted by Las Casas. The geographical knowledge of theworld in 16th-century Spain with regard to the Islario general de todas las islas del mundo (1560) by Alfonso de Santa Cruz: the case of the Lesser Antilles – A. OÏFFER-BOMSEL At the request of Philip II, Alfonso de Santa Cruz drew up the Islario general de todas las islas del mundo. This geographic work, the latest in a line initiated in Classic Antiquity by the likes of Strabo, Ptolemy and Diodorus of Sicily among others, can be considered the most important island atlas of the Spanish Renaissance. Although the scientific description furnishedby the author in his Islario embraces all insular territory on a global scale, the Lesser Antilles will form the subject of this contribution. If, in reporting the properties of these islands (relief, flora and fauna, natural and moral history), Santa Cruz refers to the work of illustrious contemporary chroniclers like Peter Martyr d’Anghiera and Gonzalo Fernández de Oviedo, nevertheless the author develops in the Islario a method that is his own and that draws its legitimacy in respect to what constitutes in his eyes the supreme principle of the scientific process, to wit ra2

tionality. While adopting certain theories as well as tools and techniques that belong to the ancient geographic and cosmographic tradition, Santa Cruz, to succeed in his description of the insular world of the Antilles, analyses the facts about physical experience and natural phenomena in a meticulous and objective manner.Finally, the “neutral” pragmatism inherent to the scientific process of Alfonso de Santa Cruz appears to influence his way of conceiving of and judging the relationships that are established between various peoples during the modern era and the states that effectively develop out of in the sense that he adopts with respect to the world and its imposed values an attitude of prudent circumspection which at times border on skepticism. The missionary designs of Pacifique de Provins on America – É. ROULET The Capuchin Pacifique de Provins arrives in the Antilles in 1645 with numerous plans for the con-version of the Amerindians. Armed with his past experience in the Orient in the 1620s, he envisages the founding of a seminary for the missionaries and of schools to teach children the Christian doctrine. His aspirations run counter to the state of the powers in the islands, which has turned to the Capuchins’ disadvantage. Nevertheless, he pursues his goals during the course of a final voyage to French Guiana in 1648, from which he will not return. Beyond his perhaps idealised vision of conversion of the Amerindians, Pacifique de Provins all the same succeeds in inspiring the renewal of capuchin activity in this area, and his projects will see fruition two decades later. The complexity of the Antilles through the looking-glass of Roman sources between knowledge and hjurisdiction (17th-18th centuries) – G. PIZZORUSSO In Rome, the General Curia of the religious orders (Dominican, Jesuit, Carmelite, Capuchin) and the pontifical congregations (the Propaganda Fide, the Holy Office) exert and ecclesiastical jurisdiction over the missionaries in the Antilles and French Guiana, thereby permitting the accumulation of documents within their Roman archives. This study attempts to shed light on how this accumulation was realised, detailing the individual characters of the collections of eacht of these central institutions, as well as the relations between them. This approach allows not only the inventorying of the documentation from the Antilles, but also of the production of documents about the Antilles by these institutions, on the basis of received information. In following the main thread of several major themes (the reports of the prefects and the scheme of ecclesiastical hierarchy, the conversion of the Amerindians and the Blacks, the service of Catholic national minorities such as the Irish, projects of missionary expansion in Terra Firme), one can affirm that in Rome – and notably among the Congregation of Propaganda (the true central organ of Roman missionary jurisdiction) – an image accurately reflecting the complexity of the socio-religious framework of the Antilles had already formed in the 17th century century. And this vision is prolonged into the 18th century, as several marked examples demonstrate. Despite the loses, documental lacunas and the relatively lesser importance ascribed to the Caribbean and Guianan areas within the global panorama of Catholic missions, the Roman archives represent indispensable documentary collections for research into the Caribbean. Pastor Charles de Rochefort and the Histoire naturelle et morale des îles Antilles de l’Amérique – B. ROUX In 1658, the pastor Charles de Rochefort (ca 1604-1683) publishes his Histoire naturelle et morale des îles Antilles de l’Amérique anonymously in Rotterdam. This work rapidly achieves a measure of success throughout Europe. Translated into Dutch, English and German, often re-edited, this book remains a reference for all readers curious about the history of the Antilles up to the end of the 18th century. Scat-tered references to it among philosophers, naturalists and ethnographers of the Enlightenment testifyto that. Nowadays, the value accorded to this soure contrasts strongly with the reception it was awarded by the lettered public of the 17th and 18th century. Even the comprehension of the text has become problematic. The author and his project remain basically ill-known, if not controversial. The text, which has yet to appear in a critical edition, remains difficult to access. Taken in its entirety, the contains a great deal of variance and eventhat perhaps test the patience of the reader and often result in false or partial interpretations. In the light of unpublished source material, notably Dutch ones, and a critical reappraisal of well-known texts, this contribution attempts to shed light on the difficulties of understanding a source that lies at the heart of the Antillean corpus. It will be about seeing who Rochefort is, where he travels 3

and what role the Caribbean experience plays therein. Thus, we will observe the author of the Histoire at work, tied up with the construction of his books and the revision of his text, before unravelling the mechanisms of his process. Finally, we will dedicate our-selves to analysing a selection of the sources that relate to the Caribbean Amerindians. VARIA The native death in Amazonia – S. ROSTAIN The study of funerary practices is a privileged way to understand societies. In Amazonia, and espe-cially in the Guianas, these practices show a great variety of manifestations. The combination of histori-cal, ethnohistorical, ethnological and archaeological data permits a comparative analysis of funerary habits of the Natives of the largest rainforest in the world. It is possible to follow step by step the different phases various Amazonian groups undergo when a death occurs. They are the origin of the death, the group reaction to the death and the mourning rites, the body preparation, the burial, the destination of the deceased’s assets and the offerings, the consequences of the death for the community, and the deceased’s travels according to Native mythology. The prehispanic games of Mesoamerica: survival and continuity – É. TALADOIRE Ethnological studies in Mexico documented the existence of several ballgames, the origin of which could be related to the survival of prehispanic games. The importance of the prehispanic ballgames, among which the ulama is the most famous, is amply attested by the number of known courts (more than 2000), as well as by the number of associated artefacts. The ballgames’ essential standing is justified by their ritual and symbolic significance, in close association with fertility rituals. Despite intensive repression during colonial times, it is probably such symbolic value that allowed some ballgames’ survival, in certain marginal Mesoamerican areas, up to the present. A map of the New World in a manuscript by Ptolemy – D. MARCOTTE This contribution provides a new description of a modern map of the world, dated to the first decades of the 16th century, that is conserved within a manuscript copy of Ptolemy’s Geography, copied around 1470 and illuminated in the Florentine studio of the cartographer Nicolaus Germanus. The new map, painted on a double page left blank in the manuscript, aims to produce an update of the mappa-mundi of Ptolemy, which figures on the following double page. Its general morphology is studied as well as those facets which it has in common with its Ptolemean model; particular attention is paid to characterising the representation of the NewWorld and to dating the geographical and historical information that it incorporates. The mentioning of the second voyage of Giovanni da Verrazano and of his death, which occurred in 1528, provides a terminus post quem for this map. © B. Grunberg [ed.], Les Indiens des Petites Antilles. Des premiers peuplements aux débuts de la colonisation

européenne [Cahiers d’Histoire de l’Amérique Coloniale, n°5], Paris, L’Harmattan, 2011, 304 p.

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