POSITIONING BY KEY ADVERTISING IMAGES – BRANDING A FAMILY FARM VACATION OFFER

ANDREA HEMETSBERGER CLEMENS PIRKER THOMAS PIXNER

TTRA, 2006 Annual Conference, June 18-21, Dublin, Ireland "New Frontiers in Global Tourism - Trends and Competitive Challenges"

ABSTRACT Visual images are powerful ways to communicate tourism brands. However, empirical evidence shows that advertising images of tourism offers that refer to a particular region are often stereotype and not at all differentiated from others. This article introduces a method how a tourism offer can be positioned, and how the positioning statement can be translated into pictorial elements of an advertising image. We demonstrate its usefulness with a case study. Furthermore, we test our proposed translation – from positioning statement to a key advertising image – with 127 guests of an Alpine family farm vacation brand.

Keywords: key advertising image, positioning, means-end chain theory

0

POSITIONING BY KEY ADVERTISING IMAGES – BRANDING A FAMILY FARM VACATION OFFER

INTRODUCTION Brands and tourism brands in particular, may be defined by the images they produce in the minds of their customers (see, for instance Pike, 2002 for an extensive overview). Visual images are powerful ways to communicate not only what a tourist site looks like, but also how consumers are meant to think about the site, how it is purposefully positioned by the provider of a tourism offer. Pictures say more than a thousand words. However, those thousand words are in the eye of the beholder. Whether customers perceive pictures exactly as intended by the sender of the communicative message, is subject to how well the picture is composed. In many cases pictures are used which – on the surface – are able to send the intended message. Yet, in many cases, neither the intended positioning of the tourism offer is clear and differentiated, nor is the picture free from stereotypical elements, which do not discriminate between service offers. Particularly when tourism offers relate to a region rather than a particular service offer, like a restaurant or a hotel, advertising images tend to become over-generalized. Hence, such offers, first, would need an unambiguous positioning statement, which is able to transport a differentiating message and, secondly, tourist managers would need to translate this positioning statement into a key advertising image. Contrary to common conceptualizations of positioning in tourism research (Botha, Crompton, and Kim, 1999; Mykletun, Crotts, and Mykletun, 2001), we argue that positioning based on what customers bear in mind when thinking of tourism offers of particular regions, is prone to result in stereotype advertising. Consequently, we introduce a different perspective and provide a suitable approach for the development of a communicative position of a regional tourism brand. Yet, it is important to consider that such a communicative positioning must reflect the meaning of the offer as perceived by the customers. It is necessary, therefore, to test, whether images which are used for promoting a regional tourist site, are perceived to (1) reflect the intended position of a region, and at the same time (2) are perceived to be typical, thus authentic, for that particular destination. The aim of this article, therefore, is to present, how a positioning statement of a tourism offer can be developed. We will demonstrate this process for a family farm vacation offer in the Alpine region. Secondly, we will show how the positioning statement can be translated into pictorial elements of an advertising image. We will, then, describe how we tested whether the images matched the intended position for the particular tourism offer of the region, and to what extent. Finally, we will discuss our findings and draw managerial implications from our research. THEORETICAL BACKGROUND Positioning tourism brands Botha, Crompton, and Kim (1999) introduced tourism marketers to the concept of positioning a destination. In defining positioning they draw on Ries’ and Trout’s (1982) conceptualization, who described positioning as the image consumers hold of a brand relative to competing brands in the same product category. Thus, differentiation plays a key role in positioning strategy. Furthermore, following Ries and Trout (1982), tourism destination research widely adopted the view that the starting point for positioning is to identify what exists in the minds of visitors and

1

reinforce these features in their minds, instead of what tourism marketers believe the destination has to offer. However, empirical evidence shows that destination tourism offers and advertising, in many cases, are undifferentiated and stick to regional stereotypes (see Appendix), which, as a consequence, manifest themselves in the minds of consumers. Hence, reinforcing those images in the minds of the consumers seems counterproductive. Consequently, and in accordance with recent developments in tourism research (Hankinson, 2004; Blain, Levy, and Ritchie, 2005), we adopt a branding perspective of destination marketing. This perspective suggests defining a brand’s position with regard to its functional, symbolic, and experiential attributes. The intended position of a brand must be firmly rooted in reality, meaning that the brand also delivers what has been promised. In an attempt to develop a communicative positioning statement for a particular tourism offer in an Alpine region, we draw on the advertising literature and on MECCA’s model (Reynolds and Gutman, 1984; 1988), in particular. In contrast to the image approach in tourism research, which has recently been increasingly criticized for imposing more or less relevant, mostly quantitatively measured evaluation criteria on tourism destinations (MacKay and Couldwell 2004; Blain, Levy, and Ritchie, 2005; Ryan and Cave, 2005), we chose a different theoretical approach to assess the meaning of a tourism brand. Whereas classical image research focuses on functional and emotional attributes as the determinants of the evaluation of and decision for a tourism brand, the means-end chains approach to brand meaning adopts the perspective that brand choice rather depends on the relevance of a product or service to one’s self (Walker and Olson, 1991). Means-end chains theory (Gutman, 1982) provides a theoretical basis to explain these interrelations and the underlying value system. Means-end chains are organized structures of meanings that individuals construct to represent important or salient relationships and concepts in their lives (Olson, 1991). Meanings of objects are defined as personally relevant for desired end states or values in a specific environmental setting. These meanings have different abstraction levels. Some of them are concrete and represent attributes. Others are more abstract, like perceived consequences of specific attributes, and underlying values relating to these consequences. The more abstract the concept the more it is related to the self. Hence, the theory maintains that consumer behavior and decision making is rooted in the deep meaning of objects and activities to consumers. Tourism offers can connect to these meanings, thus gain in relevance to the lives of tourists. In order to be able to relate a tourism offer to customers’ value structures, the relevant attributes of such an offer have to be linked to consequences and consider how it would fit to the consumer’s life. Hence, links and connections have to be addressed or established which connect a product or service to an individual’s value system. Reynolds and Gutman (1988) proposed to uncover those linkages by the laddering technique which, in the end, produces a hierarchical value map (HVM) of all relevant and important attributes of a brand, its consequences, and the links to social and personal values held by the consumer. Based on such meaning structures, advertising strategies can be developed. Positioning with visual images Advertising plays a vital role in tourist destination marketing strategies (Manfredo, Bright, and Haas, 1992). An imagery perspective is valuable to understand the impact of these advertising messages (MacInnis and Price, 1987). Since tourism is uniquely characterized by various sensual impressions, and visual impressions in particular, pictures are considered paramount to

2

successfully creating and communicating what a tourism destination stands for (Smith and MacKay, 2001). Pictures enjoy a superiority effect, meaning that they are cognitively processed much quicker than words, or other abstract concepts (Paivio, 1971; Kroeber-Riel, 1996). Pictorial stimuli are better recalled and affect both positive and negative brand beliefs and attitudes. They are experiential, richer, more personally relevant, more closely linked to long-term memory, and therefore more effective in advertising (Lutz and Lutz, 1978; Rossiter, 1982; MacInnis and Price, 1987; Burns, Biswas & Babin, 1993, Babin & Burns, 1997). For example, more than 50% of advertisement response variability has been related to nonverbal factors (Hecker and Steward, 1988). It is not astonishing, therefore, that advertising has made extensive use of visual images. Photographs have been said to be vital to successfully creating and communicating images of a tourism destination (Smith & MacKay, 2001; MacKay & Couldwell, 2004). Despite the dominant use of visual images in tourism promotion, most research on tourism destinations has employed word-based approaches to elicit image. Consequently, with few exceptions, tourism research on pictorial content and the influence of visual depictions in the creation of destination image is scarce (MacKay and Couldwell, 2004). Conceptualizations and research on how to translate an intended position into pictorial elements of tourism advertising, and how to test whether tourists perceive the images to transport the intended meaning, is basically non-existing. When addressing brand meaning in advertising images, we have to take into account that the structure and content of such an image plays a key role in transporting the message elements (Scott, 1994; McQuarrie & Mick, 1999). In an attempt to gain insight into the subtleties of message transportation in pictures, we draw on Scott (1994). She argued that we translate objects into pictures by the process of representation using previously made pictorial conventions or conventions of representation. Those conventions reflect the viewing habits of the culture. Scott further argues that pictures can be understood as discursive form, capable of subtle nuances in communication. An image is syntactically and semantically dense thus, putting together pictorial elements with particular meanings will not produce the sum of the meaning of the elements. This, of course, means that we should not break up pictures in parts and put them together, but rather make an informed choice according to the overall visual rhetoric of an image. Furthermore, as Johnson (1981) states, it is extremely important to recognize that all meaning is contextually contingent. Meaning is constructed, activated and used in particular contexts. Therefore, developing a key advertising image must consider both, (1) the core elements that are able to transport the intended positioning, and (2) the contextual elements that activate the situational frame of reference for interpretation. In the following section, we will describe how the translation process from strategy to a key advertising image can be put into practice. Putting theory into practice Positioning a family farm vacation offer A family farm vacation offer in an Alpine region provided the background for the joint development of the intended position of this particular tourism brand. More than 2000 farmers are involved in this joint tourism enterprise, which is coordinated and loosely directed by the farmers association. This enterprise has been given a given a brand name and logo by the association in order to provide a differentiation from other offers within and outside the geographic region. However, brand name and logo did not prevent them from using the same old stereotype images as similar offers from other Alpine regions of middle and southern Europe (see Appendix 1). Furthermore, this narrow interpretation of a brand as a logo also led to different 3

interpretations of the tourism offers by the farmers themselves thus producing an ambiguous image on the market. Therefore, a different, pro-active approach to positioning the tourism offer was chosen, based on a more holistic branding paradigm. According to this view, a position of a brand must be actively developed and decided on by the management, but still be receptive to consumer perceptions and interpretations of the meaning of the brand. The new and differentiating brand position was developed in a one year’s consulting process, involving the chairman of the association, some farmers who are engaged in the respective business, and one to two consultants, depending on the phase of the project. The development of the intended position of the brand was based on discussions with the local farmers and their guests. According to means-end chains theory, relevant attributes, consequences, and values were carved out, and integrated into one grand scheme, a so called hierarchical value map (HVM) for the family farm vacation offer. Several possible paths were developed in workshops and put together into a coherent map. In the end, the strategy team decided to base the position of the tourism offer on three interrelated paths as depicted in Appendix 2. One positioning route is based on the smallness of the farms which makes them a cozy and distinct place to stay and, as a consequence, makes guests feel comfortable and at home. Another related route leads to inner harmony which is based on encounters on a very personal level, respectful ways of interaction, reflecting honesty and authenticity. A third means-end chain is based on the vivid life on those farms, the unconventional rules and ways of living, leading to a vacation full of experiences and adventures, fun and joy. Based on these interrelated positioning routes, the strategy team decided on the core of the tourist service offer of the family farm vacation. Although the hierarchical value map provides a good overview over the actual and potential benefits of this offer, it is still too broad for a focused advertising strategy, and a unique and differentiated tourism offer. Hence, in order to achieve this goal, the strategy team worked out the central core, or central idea of the future ‘brand’ as promoted and described by Bruhn (1997) and Esch (1998). The central core was defined by the strategy team as follows: “The brand stands for genuine and authentic hospitality.” All other concepts of the HVM provide a solid ground for interpreting this positioning statement. In an attempt to develop a working frame for the operationalization of the intended position into advertising strategy, we draw on the MECCA’s (Means-end Conceptualization of Components for Advertising Strategy) model, developed by Reynolds and Gutman (1984). The model enables the advertising strategist to translate means-ends positioning pathways into executional ideas, and provides a unique structure for ideation. The focal point of this ideation is the associative aspect of meaning between any two given concepts. What is required is to develop executional ideas, scenarios, or symbols that will cause association of the two concepts in the mind of the target group (Gengler and Reynolds, 1995). Usually, three bridges have to be built, the bridge between service attributes and benefits, the bridge between benefits and positive consequences for a consumer’s life, and lastly, the value bridge. The most decisive bridge that has to be built in order to make the message personally relevant for the addressee is the association between consumer benefits and the personal value system of an individual. Figure 2 exhibits how concrete service attributes, consumer benefits, and personal values were linked and implemented in the advertising strategy of the family farm vacation offer.

4

Driving Force: Fun & Joy Feeling comfortable and secure Inner harmony

Value Bridge Leverage Point: Genuine and personal hospitality

Personal Relevance Bridge Consumer Benefits: Homelike atmosphere Nice and distinct place Personal relationships Experiences and adventure

Product Bridge Message Elements: Unconventional, informal rules Small farms Vivid life on a farm

Contrary to tourist offers that are geared towards technological feasibility and globalization, the family farm vacation clearly differentiates its offer from this philosophical background. Based on a humanist values system, it rather emphasizes a genuine, traditional, and rural life world. It is targeted to a postmaterial group of people. Fun and joy derive from a deep feeling of inner harmony. Its counterpart would be tourists, who strive for excitement in a constructed, urban environment. The service offered is not managed, but lived in an authentic and very natural way. Guests are integrated in the lives of the farmers thus, they have the possibility to take part in and experience nature, work, and all other activities on a small farm. This way of living is radically different from the ordinary lives of the guests. Hence, it is experienced as enriching and exciting. Farmers share their lives with their guests. They work, eat, and drink together; just as they would with their friends and relatives. Within this homelike atmosphere, also the manner and quality of communication is experienced as natural and authentic. The farms represent the traditional small and Alpine characteristic of the region. This makes them a distinct and exciting place to stay, full of adventures and new things to explore. The smallness of the farms also makes it a place the guests feel familiar with, within a short period of time. Guests get to know the family members very soon and develop personal relationships. Superficial flowery phrases like in big hotels are unnecessary and unwanted. Rural life is determined by different structures and unconventional rules. Life on the farm is vivid and lively.

Figure 1. MECCA’s model for a family farm vacation offer

Translating advertising strategy into a key advertising image What is described in the MECCA’s model in a verbal manner has to be translated into pictorial elements of advertising visuals. Figure 1 shows how this process may be structured. In the following, we will describe these steps in more detail.

5

Step

Operationalizing the intended position in the MECCAS model

1

Step

Defining the core benefit of the brand

2

Deriving the core advertising message from MECCAS model

Determining the pictorial elements of the key advertising image

Step 3

a) Determining the core elements

Step 4

b) Determining the contextual elements

Selection and testing of the selected pictures

Figure 1: 4 steps of selecting a key advertising image in practice For translating the advertising strategy in pictorial elements, we applied the following procedure. 86 pictures were selected and assessed whether they apply a visual rhetoric that relates to the positioning of the farm vacation offer, or not. Those were shown to farmers in order to get an expert assessment of the most typical and authentic pictures. Particular attention was drawn on the perceived congruency or inconsistencies of contextual and core elements, because any inconsistency could lead to irritations on the side of the respondents and cause unwanted biases. For determining the contextual elements (the background), we followed the concept of life world (‘Lebenswelt’) (Schütz and Luckmann, 1989). Contrary to social worlds, groups and societies, life world comprises the lived experience of the everyday environment of individuals. Hence, pictures had to be selected, which reflect this everyday context of the farmer’s world. In order to ensure an authentic presentation of the life world, 7 farmers were visited, interviewed, and their everyday life was observed. In a second step, 7 members of the farmers association were asked to name the most typical elements of the farmers’ life world in the respective region. Two different life worlds had been outlined by them. First, a life world of farmers, who primarily live uphill in mountainous regions, and make their living from selling milk and meat. The second life world comprises farms, which specialize on making wine, and are situated down in the sunny valleys. These two life worlds are actually or symbolically represented in the background of the pictures. They provide the necessary context for the interpretation of the core elements.

6

The contextual elements, then, were combined with core elements reflecting the intended position of the farm vacation offer, which is the encounter of a guest and his host farmer expressing a warm relationship. In order to produce these associations in the eyes of the guests, the core elements were defined as follows. Core element 1 is a member of the host family, representing a personal and authentic farm vacation offer. To achieve this goal, this person should exhibit a warm smile, should have a sun-tanned face, red cheeks (particularly in the case of children), strong arms, eventually wear a blue apron or a casual farmers outfit, which would be typical for the region. In the case of women representing a host family, they should appear as natural beauties without using any make-up. Core element 2 comprises one or more guests with a contented, smiling facial expression, pale and being of a more asthenic type, wearing a functional, casual vacation outfit, however different from the regional fashion. In order to be able to transport the core message of the picture, it is decisive to design the encounter between the host and the guest. Several encounters are possible, as long as they represent a personal, friendly and authentic interaction. A host child and a guest child playing in the woods, a farmer explaining guest children how to make cheese, the host grandma serving self-made apple juice to the guests, are possible examples of such encounters. The 86 pictures were rated by the strategy team and two independent judges, according to the above mentioned prerequisites. In total, six pictures remained for the final, empirical testing on the market (see Appendix 3). Method A Web-based questionnaire was designed in order to test whether the pictures are reflecting the intended position, or not. An email was sent to all current customers of the family farm vacation. In total, 127 guests answered the questionnaire. A within subject design was used in this study. Respondents had to evaluate each of the six selected pictures one after the other in random order. Potential biases such as familiarity effects, sensitization and carry over (image exposure was separated in time i.e. shown one after the other, but never on the same screen) were controlled for (e.g. Greenwald 1976). In accordance with our theoretical framework, we tested not only whether the chosen pictures are reflecting the intended attributes and benefits of the tourism offer, but also whether guests associate the pictures with the ‘personal relevance and value bridges’ as depicted in the MECCA’s model. Hence, we applied two simple techniques for testing whether the selected pictures match the intended position as perceived by guests, or not. First, we applied a simple association task asking the respondents which of the attributes, benefits, and values, according to their opinion, would fit the message of the pictures best. For this task we presented positionrelevant attributes, benefits, and values. Those were mixed with items which were explicitly outside the positioning frame such as “perfectly organized”. Respondents were asked to evaluate the fit of the items with the presented pictures on a 7-point Likert scale. As a second task, we developed three, very brief ‘stories’, which are reflecting different positioning routes, and asked which of the stories presented would fit the pictures best (for a screenshot of this evaluation task see Appendix 4). The first story reflected the intended positioning route the best: unconventional rules and way of living – individual care - personal encounters, genuine and authentic personal relationships, – feeling comfortable and at home. (see also Appendix 2). The second story somehow relates to the intended positioning, however the route would not be at the core of the intended positioning. It relates to experiencing nature and having an exciting time, far from urban life. The third story reflects the benefit of relaxation, finding one’s inner harmony, and 7

revitalization of family ties and friendships. Hence, story two and three only partly reflect the intended position of the family farm vacation offer. Results Respondents were between 16 and 72 years old (M = 44.65, SD = 12.00). The range of days spent on a holiday trip was between a minimum of 7.54 (SD = 3.40) and 16.10 (SD = 4.88) days. 38.80% of the respondents had a university degree, 35.00% served an apprenticeship, 20.40% finished high school, and 5.80% had only minimum required education. First, all items representing the intended position, as well as those for the non – positioning items, were summed up and averaged. In sum, the evaluation of all six pictures resulted in highly significant differences as shown in table 1 (F (4.27, 538.16)= 68.26, p