Seuil, 1980.

lacmillan, 1963. !'heological Explanations." Sacramentum New York: Herder and Herder, 1968. 11:263-

Less or More Black and White?

Reassessing Genet's Les negres

in Light of Both Published Versions

-ist in Late Medieval Culture. Cambridge:

Brian Gordon Kennelly

x. Ed. Jean Collignon. Macmillan Modem

Je suis furieux. Je me donne depuis 15 jours tant de mal pour corriger cette piece et la rendre possible, et vous me compliquez tout. [...] Envoyez-moi Ie manuscrit. J'ai besoin de controler, mais avec cette imbecile manie de vouloir me conserver les manuscrits, je ne peux jamais corriger. A quoi jouez-vous? Je ne signerai pas une reCdition des Negres si je ne peux pas corriger ce texte, s'il est mal imprime. 1 each of the five plays by Jean Genet performed before his death in 1986 exists in more than one published version. 2 Critics have discussed the differences between the various published versions of each play 3 with the exception of Les negres: the drama commissioned by Raymond Rouleau, first published by Marc Barbezat in 1958, first performed in a production by Roger Blin at the Theatre de Lutece in Paris in 1959, and published in a revised edition the following year. Why have the changes Genet made to us negres remained undiscussed? Perhaps the attention of critics, like that of the audience described by Bernard Frechtman, Genet's American translator, has been diverted by the ceremony at the heart of the drama (Frechtman 5). Could a study of the changes Genet made to the play lead to a better understanding of ambiguity in Les negres? When Genet "cleaned up" the text in the late 1950s, "suppressing" everything, as Blin recalls he did, that "didn't work" (White 431), did the dividing line between the staged and the real in his complex work so intensely concerned with difference become less or more black and white?

A Framework of Confusion Derek F. Connon's study of "confusion," of what he terms Genet's "art of upsetting" the audience in-and of-us negres usefully frames these questions. Picking up on Graham Dunstan Martin's observation that the play is calculated to offend its spectators, to frighten them, or stimulate their worst racial instincts (Martin 519), Connon notes that Genet achieves this in both obvious and subliminal ways. Among the more obvious ways, Connon lists the ritual 1. Genet 1988b (letter of 9 October 1959 to Marc Barbezat). 2. Les bonnes 1947, 1954, 1968b; Haute surveillance 1949, 1965, 1968c, 1988a; Le balcon 1956, 1962, 1968a; Les negres 1958, 1960; Les paravents 1961,

1976. 3. See for example Saint-Leon, Kennelly, Bougon, Walker 1982 and 1984, and AsIan 1972. Dalhousie French Sludies 44 (1998)

- 123 ­

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Brian Gordon Kennelly

murder of a white woman reenacted by black actors before a stage audience of white caricatures played by masked blacks, and the mixed response to the symbolic figures of the white Court by the white audience in the auditorium. Among the ways he sees as acting on a more subliminal level, Connon draws our attention on the one hand to the fragmentation of the ritual re-enactment of the murder at the heart of the play. He points out that it helps Genet trick us into blaming ourselves for the disquieting feeling we have-derived in part from questions that arose over the true identity of the victim-that the details of the murder are shifting like a mirage. On the other hand, Connon also explores the rich layering of action in the play, showing how it deepens the ambiguous relationship of illusion to reality in Genet's work. Comparing Genet's intentions in two of the plays he wrote before Les negres to his intentions in this drama, Connon writes: The multi-layering in this work is even more complex than that of Le balcon: in Les bonnes it is relatively easy to sort out one layer from another, even if the opening of the play sets out to confuse us; with Le balcon we have seen that the relationship between layers is deliberately ambiguous; in Les negres the layers proliferate and overlap to an alarming extent. (428) As evidence of this layering, Connon notes: first, the problem posed by the relationship of the Court to the ritual; second, the theme of love between Vertu and Village; finally, Connon discusses at some length the third complicated strand in this dramatic work, which he sees as having been written deliberately to confuse: the real revolution taking place in the wings. Alluding to the studies of Joseph H. McMahon, Jean-Marie Magnan, Philip Thody, Edmund White, Jean Decock, Richard N. Coe, and Martin Esslin, Connon reminds us that critical opinion of the status of the revolution is not unanimous: McMahon, Magnan, Thody, and White accept it as "real"4; Decock, Coe, and Esslin put its reality into the same question as they do theatrical reality in general. Nonetheless, he summarizes, all accept the basic situation being presented to us: that of actors playing "actors," who-in order to distract the audience from events taking place off stage-are enacting a ritual. For Connon, however, this is a gross simplification. He writes:

4. Although not mentioned by Connon, both Blin and AsIan also consider this action "real. Blin recalls: "Tout dans Ie spectacle est faux. Des comediens jouent Ie proces des Noirs par des Blancs, puis Ie proces des Blancs par des Noirs, et ~a c' est de l'ordre de la representation. Mais pendant ce temps, en coulisse, se deroule la seule chose serieuse et reelle, Ie jugement d'un Noir par d'autres Noirs. Ville de Saint-Nazaire, qui est charge de rendre compte de ce qui se passe dehors, est Ie seul personnage qui soit hors du jeu" (137). AsIan echoes Blin: "Spectateurs blancs convies a constituer dans la salle l'audience necessaire a tout ceremonial, nous n'assistons en realite qu'a une partie de la ceremonie, a savoir un spectacle de parade dissimulant, masquant Ie veritable evenement qui, lui, se passe derriere Ie rideau, un reglement de comptes qui ne nous regarde pas; il ne conceme que les Noirs" (1990:184).

Genet

If Genet is to suggest to us tha

away our attention from ever needs to give us some hint occurring, but those hints m\ serious attempt on the part of And yet what do we find in , ambiguity, presents us with 01 history of drama. (428-29) Connon then goes on to explain that V Genet's drama who provides a link t distinguished from the other charactl dismissed from the stage by Archibal uncharacteristically heavy-handed in th dialogue of the play. "The worst way surely to begin by pointing out that th therefore, take this "real" action at facl what is really going on, something "s nature of Genet's work." To support I Saint-Nazaire exits the stage. On two I wants to exit stage-right. But Archiba suggests that the off-stage action serve there is another level of illusi the perfonnance and the action "real," the execution of the bl actors are playing "actors," wh from events taking place off· who, in order to distract our . off-stage left, are enacting a rit This situation, Connon believes, is del The audience will obviously be "real" and what is not, perhaps not, for the idea of actors playi many different levels that there in the mind of the spectator bel perhaps, even that of reality its must now be taken to be the " action, has the additional threa rein to the imagination. So I audience to feel both confused I Could Genet's early (and to date light on what is happening stage-right (as the early version of Les bonne audiences as puzzled, confused, and thre

Brian Gordon Kennelly

Iy black actors before a stage audience of blacks, and the mixed response to the ly the white audience in the auditorium. I a more subliminal level, Connon draws agmentation of the ritual re-enactment of Ie points out that it helps Genet trick us lng feeling we have-derived in part from tity of the victim-that the details of the the other hand, Connon also explores the ihowing how it deepens the ambiguous in Genet's work. Comparing Genet's te before Les negres to his intentions in is even more complex than that of elatively easy to sort out one layer ng of the play sets out to confuse een that the relationship between 10US; in Les negres the layers rming extent. (428) notes: first, the problem posed by the ;econd, the theme of love between Vertu :s at some length the third complicated :ees as having been written deliberately to e in the wings. Alluding to the studies of nan, Philip Thody, Edmund White, Jean Esslin, Connon reminds us that critical is not unanimous: McMahon, Magnan, . Decock, Coe, and Esslin put its reality trical reality in general. Nonetheless, he ion being presented to us: that of actors act the audience from events taking place lr Connon, however, this is a gross

125

Genet

If Genet is to suggest to us that the ritual is merely a blind to take

away our attention from events happening off stage he clearly needs to give us some hint that those off-stage events are occurring, but those hints must be subtle enough to suggest a serious attempt on the part of the characters to keep them secret. And yet what do we find in Les negres? Genet, the master of ambiguity, presents us with one of the worst-kept secrets in the history of drama. (428-29) Connon then goes on to explain that Ville de Saint-Nazaire, the only character in Genet's drama who provides a link between on-stage and off-stage actions, is distinguished from the other characters: attention is drawn to him when he is dismissed from the stage by Archibald, the master of ceremonies; and Genet is uncharacteristically heavy-handed in the attitude towards secrecy manifested in the dialogue of the play. "The worst way," Connon points out, "to keep a secret is surely to begin by pointing out that there is a secret to be kept." We should not, therefore, take this "real" action at face value, he argues. Critics have overlooked what is really going on, something "so much more in keeping with the allusive nature of Genet's work." To support his case, Connon points to where Ville de Saint-Nazaire exits the stage. On two different occasions, Ville de Saint-Nazaire wants to exit stage-right. But Archibald instructs him to exit stage-left. Connon suggests that the off-stage action serves to divert our attention:

I

, both Blin and AsIan also consider this spectacle est faux. Des comediens jouent Ie . proces des Blancs par des Noirs, et ~a c'est endant ce temps, en coulisse, se deroule la lent d'un Noir par d'autres Noirs. Ville de :ompte de ce qui se passe dehors, est Ie seul '). AsIan echoes Blin: "Spectateurs blancs ldience necessaire a tout ceremonial, nous de la ceremonie, a savoir un spectacle de lIe evenement qui, lui, se passe derriere Ie e nous regarde pas; il ne conceme que les

there is another level of illusion between the external reality of the performance and the action that has generally been accepted as "real," the execution of the black traitor. That is to say that the actors are playing "actors," who, in order to distract our attention from events taking place off-stage right, are playing "actors," who, in order to distract our attention from events taking place off-stage left, are enacting a ritual. This situation, Connon believes, is deliberately confusing: The audience will obviously be puzzled about what is meant to be "real" and what is not, perhaps even about what is real and what is not, for the idea of actors playing to an audience is repeated on so many different levels that there is bound to be a degree of blurring in the mind of the spectator between the various levels, including, perhaps, even that of reality itself. And the off-right action, which must now be taken to be the "real" action rather than the off-left action, has the additional threat of being unspecified, giving free rein to the imagination. So the multi-layering will cause the audience to feel both confused and threatened. (432) Could Genet's early (and to date unperformed) version of Les negres shed light on what is happening stage-right? If performed instead of the later version (as the early version of Les bonnes often is), would it be liable to leave audiences as puzzled, confused, and threatened?

Brian Gordon Kennelly

126

Genet

Behind the Deletions

ne saurait faire mordre la grandissent ? .. ([II tremble de

Other than peripheral changes made between the two editions of Les neg res-which include the deletion of one of the letters "c" in the cry of "coccorico" (1958:117, 144, 146; 1960:138, 171, 173), the addition of three footnotes referring to Blin's staging of the play at the Theatre de Lutece in the second edition (1960:64, 146, 176), and the integration of thirty-three photographs of Blin's production taken by Ernest Scheidegger into the second edition,S only four short sequences differ between the first and second editions of the play. The seeming superficiality of the changes is more likely the real reason critics have not compared the two versions. Except for one line (part of one of the four sequences in question) which is substituted for a gesture in the second edition, each change represents a deletion in the dialogue of the drama. One might thus also ask whether the relationship between Genet's cutting dialogue from the script and confusing the audience is parallel or inverse. The least troubling change made between the first and second editions of Les negres occurs in the lines Genet cut from the Black who played the Governor before the "lyrical" massacre of the Court. Still, these cuts do touch on the issues of certainty, ambiguity, and of what Connon terms "the clear dividing line between reality and the fiction of a play" (427). First, from the answer of the Black who played the role of Governor to Archibald's question: "Jusqu'ou acceptez-vous d'aller ?" the line following his clearly bold "Jusqu'a la mort" has been cut. In the first edition of the play, the Black playing the Governor adds: "Et qu'on se rassure, chacun de nous saura choisir pour Ie Blanc qu'il incarne ce soir, l'arrne La plus sure et La plus in/arne" (140; emphasis added). While not specifying the weapon each Courtrnember will choose, this Black nevertheless presents it in categorical, no uncertain terms. Second, from the speech he makes before being "shot dead" by Village­ only immediately afterwards to be instructed by Archibald to die (center-stage rather than on the spot)-, Genet cuts the very section in which the Governor seems to fall apart, with the very "real" trembling that overtakes him seeming to undermine the resigned calm with which he faces his fate. But even more striking is the Governor's calling into question of "reality": both his trembling and the definitiveness of his fate. In the second edition, the Governor's interrogative "Quoi ? Vous dites que je tremble? Vous savez bien que c'est la goutte militaire 1" is directly followed by his commanding "Eh bien, soit, visez donc ce creur indomptable. Je meurs sans enfants... Mais je compte sur votre sens de l'honneur pour remettre mon uniforme tache de sang, au musee de l' Armee. En joue, feu !". In the first edition, it is followed first by this sequence in which both his state of mind and the true aims of the Blacks become even harder to decipher:

signaux d'alarme... Vous n'a1lez bon ?... Si ? .. Non ?... (1958: I

Eh bien, vous ne parlez pas ? Oh, vous me reprochez les dix mille adolescents ecrases par mes chars ? Eh quoi ! un homme de guerre 5. 1960: cover and 9, 10, II, 12,21, 22, 39, 40, 49, 50, 67, 68, 77, 78, 79, 80, 89, 90, 107, 108, 117, 118, 119, 120, 129, 130, 146, 147, 148, 149, 167, 168.

tremble pas de plus en plus

j

A second sequence cut by Genet closely related to the issue of distral directly precedes the showdown betwec her Court comes to judge the Black Governor, this sequence-while on one was no crime and that in their distractic also tends towards ambiguity. It gives: Dahomey ! Negres, venez m' epaulez. I ([ft.. la reine.]) Personne n'aurait la fc troubling context. It raises questions 0 during-the ritual reenactment by the] Genet juxtaposes the very adjective sUl mefiez-vous. Vous Stes une grande Re directed at the white queen (1960: interruptive "Assez ! Et reculez !", whi in the first edition of the play Genl sequence in which Village underline justifying the ritual that has been playe a reality that never was: VILLAGE: Puisqu'i\ est encore I' escalier. Rentrez chez vous. V

tremblons, car vous etes belle, I LE lUGE: Nous avons entendu I nous a touches : meme Ie blanc coup... NEIGE ([humble)) : C'etait pour VILLAGE: II faut m'ecouter, e triplez vos escortes. Nous vo mais... BOBO ([obsequieuse)) : Car vou VERTU ([souriant]): Et finale mise en scene pour offrir avec suite... VILLAGE: ... puisqu'jJ n 'y a pal. This brings us to the third sequen negres. It is the only sequence that can Here, goaded on by the other Blacks to enter the bedroom of his victim and k

Brian Gordon Kennelly

[lade between the two editions of Les of one of the letters "c" in the cry of >0:138, 171, 173), the addition of three , the play at the Theatre de Lutece in the ), and the integration of thirty-three n by Ernest Scheidegger into the second :r between the first and second editions of the changes is more likely the real reason ,ions. Except for one line (part of one of is substituted for a gesture in the second :tion in the dialogue of the drama. One mship between Genet's cutting dialogue lee is parallel or inverse. :tween the first and second editions of Les 'om the Black who played the Governor :ourt. Still, these cuts do touch on the Itat Connon terms "the clear dividing line " (427). ck who played the role of Governor to tez-vous d'aller ?" the line following his [} cut. In the first edition of the play, the qu'on se rassure, chacun de nous saura )ir, I'arme La plus sure et La plus inflime" fying the weapon each Courtmember will it in categorical, no uncertain terms. • before being "shot dead" by Village­ ructed by Archibald to die (center-stage the very section in which the Governor trembling that overtakes him seeming to Itich he faces his fate. But even more Iuestion of "reality": both his trembling n the second edition, the Governor's : tremble? Vous savez bien que c'est la >y his commanding "Eh bien, soit, visez ans enfants... Mais je compte sur votre uniforme tache de sang, au musee de tion, it is followed first by this sequence e true aims of the Blacks become even , vous me reprochez les dix mille 7 Eh quoi ! un homme de guerre

i

39, 40, 49, 50, 67, 68, 77, 78, 79, 80, 89, 130, 146, 147, 148, 149, 167, 168.

I,

127

Genet ne saurait faire mordre la poussiere a des lurons qui grandissent 7... ([11 tremble de plus en plus fort]) ... Non. je ne tremble pas de plus en plus fort, j'envoie a mes troupes des signaux d'alarme... Vous n'allez tout de meme pas me tuer pour de bon 7... Si 7... Non 7... (1958:143-44; emphasis added)

A second sequence cut by Genet between editions of Les negres is more closely related to the issue of distraction raised by Connon. This sequence directly precedes the showdown between Felicite and the white queen, who with her Court comes to judge the Blacks. As with the sequence involving the Governor, this sequence-while on one level seeming to bring to light that there was no crime and that in their distraction the Court members have been duped­ also tends towards ambiguity. It gives Felicite's explosive "Eh bien, Dahomey! Dahomey ! Negres, venez m'epaulez. Et qu' on ne laisse pas escamoter Ie crime. ([A- la reine.]) Personne n'aurait la force de Ie nier" (1958:125; 1960:146) a troubling context. It raises questions over what has really occurred in-and/or during-the ritual reenactment by the Blacks. In the second edition of the play, Genet juxtaposes the very adjective suggesting certainty in Village's "Madame, mefiez-vous. Vous etes une grande Reine et l' Afrique n'est pas sure," which is directed at the white queen (1960: 123; emphasis added), with Felicite's interruptive "Assez ! Et reculez !", which is directed at all the Blacks. However, in the first edition of the play Genet inserts between them the following sequence in which Village underlines the reality of the Blacks' fear while justifying the ritual that has been played out before the Court as a substitute for a reality that never was: VILLAGE: Puisqu'il est encore temps, rentrez. Reculez. Remontez I'escalier. Rentrez chez vous. Vraiment, nous avons peur et nous tremblons, car vous etes belle, mais... LE JUGE : Nous avons entendu Ie recit, et la ferveur de votre chant nous a touches: meme Ie blanc de vos yeux en prenait un sale coup... NEIGE ([humble]) : C'etait pour mieux I'exalter, monseigneur. VILLAGE: 11 faut m'ecouter, et rentrer. Ou bien alors, doublez, triplez vos escortes. Nous vous sommes soumis et devoues, mais... BOBO ([obsequieuse]) : Car vous etes belle et vous sentez bon... VERTU ([souriant]): Et finalement nous avions imagine cette mise en scene pour offrir avec delicatesse des chaises a votre suite... VILLAGE: ... puisqu'il n 'y a pas eu de crime, madame... (1958: 123-24; emphasis added) This brings us to the third sequence that Genet changed in rewriting Les negres. It is the only sequence that can actually be considered part of the ritual. Here, goaded on by the other Blacks to the strains of the Dies irre, Village is to enter the bedroom of his victim and kill her. While the first two portions cut

Brian Gordon Kennelly

128

Genet

VERTU: J'ai Ie droit d'inver parlais pas en mon nom, mais , non de Village, non d'un homl

from this sequence seem not really to remove-or add-much to the play, the effect of the elimination of the third portion is more troubling. The first portion cut by Genet is the very militaristic, but uneven Un, deux, trois, quatre, cinq ! I Un, deux, trois, quatre, cinq ! I Un, deux, trois, quatre, cinq ! I Un, deux, trois, quatre, cinq ! I Six! which is sung out as though during a strident march by the Court. Genet had originally inserted it as a jarring descant between Neige's softly encouraging

NEIGE: De qui 't' As Neige claims, Archibald has Vertu has changed the words of the dl And, more important, why? It could who, while slowly making his way on been noticed by Archibald. For as the Nazaire is only noticed now:

Expire, expire doucement,l Notre-Dame des Pelicans, I JoBe mouette, poliment, I Galamment, laisse-toi torturer...

ARCHIBALD ([i1 s'aper~oit Saint-Nazaire, entre tres lentc grande tirade]) Vous ! Je vous que quand tout serait ache.. (1958:98; emphasis added)

and Vertu's Endeuillez-vous, hautes (orets I Qu'i1 s'y glisse en silence./A ses grands pieds, poussiere blanche I Mets des chaussons de Iisiere.

By cutting this and the other t\\ The second portion cut by Genet is Neige's Etendez-vous sur son chandaill Votre coude sur son mouchoir I Vous ne reverrez plus Ie jour... which directly follows Vertu's "A ses grands pieds, poussiere blanche I Mets des chaussons de lisiere" and which directly precedes the sequence in which the Judge asks the Governor what he can make out in his telescope. Now if the second cut portion, sung out by Neige-as with the portions Genet did not cut, which are sung out by Neige and Vertu-, seems in some way designed to push Village to murder and is thus directly linked to the ritual at hand, the relationship of the beginning of the third portion cut by Genet to what is unfolding onstage and offstage is less clear. Indeed, this very relationship is at the heart of the ensuing argument between Vertu and Neige, and through it are raised still more troubling questions over the nature of reality, referentiality, and the blurring of the boundaries between the layers or levels of truth and/or performance in the play. VERTU: Et vous rna tendre abeille I 0 mon regard abeille d'or I Que ton vol direct Ie conduise I Jusqu'a mon cceur... NEIGE ([hurlant]) : Menteuse ! VERTU: J'ai dit la verite. NEIGE: Au moment qu'i1 nous trompe avec toute la paIeur du monde.

ARCHIBALD: Mesdames! Silence !

NEIGE ([accusant Vertu]) : C'est elle ! Elle a change des mots et

vous ne vous en aperceviez pas. Elle chantait son amour.

negres the questions they might have between the first and second publishe, of the play, he seems to remove some action(s). While the cuts made in this three, all relate in some way to the jud Roughly in the middle of the excl Ville de Saint-Nazaire (after Ville c appearing onstage earlier than expectl this drama seem at once to intersect measurability of certainty, reality, and the first and second editions of the pIa) 6. 1958:97-98. Two-more superficial­ 102) also relate to the VertulNeige c( 7. It should be noted that the only othel on in the play-further complicate thi VILLAGE ([jnsistant]) : Nous peser pensez-vous, s'i1s s'en vont mourir, ( que Vertu pourra m'aimer? VILLs Ds S A Iliff III \6 A IRE ([a "ill deARer Gemme esmeaieBS. A

RCHI8AbD : C'est par l'IaRRetete.

r

VILLE DE SAINT-NAZAIRE ([souri les negrifier ? De leur greffer des nati les cheveux ? De les reduire en escla and: ARCHIBALD: Tout acteur sait qu'a 1I toujours qu'i1 incarne un mort ou u Dame aux Camelias, monsieur Ie Doc

Brian Gordon Kennelly

emove-or add-much to the play, the ion is more troubling. very militaristic, but uneven Un, deux, trois, quatre, cinq ! / Un, deux, trois, quatre, cinq ! / trident march by the Court. Genet had >etween Neige's softly encouraging Itre-Dame des Pelicans, / Jolie laisse-toi torturer...

lu'il s'y glisse en silence. /A ses Mets des chaussons de lisiere. feige's Votre coude sur son mouchoir / mds pieds, poussiere blanche I Mets des recedes the sequence in which the Judge in his telescope. g out by Neige-as with the portions Neige and Vertu-, seems in some way is thus directly linked to the ritual at f the third portion cut by Genet to what :lear. Indeed, this very relationship is at en Vertu and Neige, and through it are the nature of reality, referentiality, and 1 the layers or levels of truth and/or llel 0 mon regard abeille d'or / ;qu'a mon creur...

trompe avec toute la paIeur du ce! elle ! Elle a change des mots et Ie chantait son amour.

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Genet

VERTU: J'ai Ie droit d'inventer. Les Negres improvisent. Je ne parlais pas en mon nom, mais au nom de toute rna race amoureuse, non de Village, non d'un homme, mais... NEIGE: De qui 't' As Neige claims, Archibald has been distracted in order not to notice that Vertu has changed the words of the drama to suit an undisclosed referent. How? And, more important, why? It could not have been by Ville de Saint-Nazaire who, while slowly making his way onstage during Felicite's great tirade, has not been noticed by Archibald. For as the stage directions make clear, Ville de Saint­ Nazaire is only noticed now: ARCHIBALD ([il s'aper~oit soudain de la presence de Ville de Saint-Nazaire, entre tres lentement, alors que Felicite disait sa grande tirade]) Vous ! Je vous avais dit de ne venir nous prevenir que quand tout serait acheve. C'est donc fait? C'est fini ? (1958:98; emphasis added) By cutting this and the other two sequences, Genet eliminates from Les negres the questions they might have raised. Likewise, in the changes he made between the first and second published version of Les negres to a fourth section of the play, he seems to remove some of the mystery surrounding the backstage action(s). While the cuts made in this section are more scattered than in the first three, all relate in some way to the judgment at hand off-stage left. Roughly in the middle of the exchange taking place between Archibald and Ville de Saint-Nazaire (after Ville de Saint-Nazaire surprises Archibald by appearing onstage earlier than expected), the strands of the confusing layers of this drama seem at once to intersect and overlap. And again, the issues of the measurability of certainty, reality, and the levels of audience are raised. 7 In both the first and second editions of the play, we have the following sequence: 6. 1958:97-98. Two-more superficial-changes in this sequence (on pages 100 and 102) also relate to the VertulNeige conflict. 7. It should be noted that the only other sequences cut by Genet-which occur later on in the play-further complicate the layering. They are: VILLAGE ([insistant]) : Nous peser? Avec leurs balances d'or et de rubis ? Et pensez-vous, s'ils s'en vont mourir, qu'ils me laisseront aimer Vertu - ou plutot que Vertu pourra m'aimer? "lbbS I)e S,A INT N ~ A 11m ([a Village]) : Ty as peyr ? V9YS a"e;l ey t9rt Be "9YS seRRer SelRBIS saFAeeiens. ..' RCIUA A bI) : C' est par R9RRetete. ~19YS R9YS B9RRi9RS SYReyt S9HlI"e Nllgres.

VILLE DE SAINT-NAZAIRE ([souriant mais precis]): Vous n'avez pas essaye de les negrifier ? De leur greffer des narines et des levres bambaras ? De leur crepeler les cheveux ? De les reduire en esclavage ? (1960: 127) and: ARCHIBALD: Tout acteur sait qu'a une heure fixe Ie rideau sera baisse. Et presque toujours qu'jJ incarne un mort ou une morte: Phedre, Don Juan, Antigone, la Dame aux Camelias, monsieur Ie Docteur Schweitzer... ([Un long silence.])

130

Brian Gordon Kennelly

Genet

ARCHIBALD: Vous etes sur qu'il soit coupable ? Et surtout qu'il soit Ie coupable que nous cherchons ?

Valet replies: "Les Negres gueule implies that everything has just bee

VILLE DE SAINT-NAZAIRE ([un peu ironique]): Vous auriez tout i\ coup des soup~ons ?

Suppressing the Truth?

ARCHIBALD: Reflechissez: il s'agit de juger, probablement de condamner, et d'executer un Negre. C'est grave. II ne s'agit plus de jouer. L'homme que nous tenons et dont nous sommes responsables est un homme reel. II houge, il mache, il tousse, il tremble: tout i\ l'heure il sera rue. VILLE DE SAINT-NAZAIRE : C'est tres dur, je Ie sais. Mais je sais que si la comedie peut etre menee devant eux ([il montre Ie public]), nous ne devons plus jouer quand nous sommes entre nous. II faudra nous habituer a prendre la responsabilite du sang - du notre. Et Ie poids moral... ARCHIBALD ([l'interrompant]) : Tais-toi. (1958:98-99; 1960:115-16) However, in the second edition of Les negres, what follows Archibald's "Tu n'empecheras pas, comme je te I'ai dit, qu'il ne s'agisse d'un sang vivant, chaud, souple, fumant, d'un sang qui saigne..." and Ville de Saint-Nazaire's "Mais, alors, cette comedie que nous jouons, pour vous, ce n'etait qu'un divertissement ?" (1960: 116) is stripped of its mysterious shroud. In the first edition, we have: ARCHIBALD: Tu n'empecheras pas, comme je te l'ai dit, qu'il ne s'agisse d'un sang vivant, chaud, souple, fumant, d'un sang qui saigne, en somme... VILLE DE SAINT-NAZAIRE : Mais, alors, cette comedie que nous jouons, pour vous, ce n'etait qu'un divertissement? Elle n'avait pas pour but de derailler... (1958:99; e~phasis added) In the first edition, the "precisions" of both men, Archibald's summation ("en somme ") and Ville de Saint-Nazaire's apposition ("E11e n'avait pas pour but de detailler "), are left unfinished. Attention is drawn to them not by what they tell us but by what they leave unsaid, in the dark. And in the middle of the sequence directly following this one-in two lines also cut from the play-, after the Judge (referring to the Queen's understanding of what is unfolding on stage) asks the Valet, who has just reentered: "Elle sait ce qui se passe ?" the

QIOur : Nays Ie sa"aRS lays, ~Ye Ie seyl e"eReRleRl ~Yi flaYFFail RayS aFFasher a se jell de mireir, s'est Ie sang EJui sByle. ([On entend un bruit de pas dans la coulisse. Diouf affole remet son masque. Les autres Negres paraissent apeures. lis vont tous, en masse, avec madame Felicite, se grouper i\ gauche de la scene sous Ie balcon ou apparaissait la COUTo Le pietinement et Ie bruit deviennent plus precis. Enfin, de la coulisse de droite, sembiant descendre un chemin, i\ reculons, sort d'abord Ie Valet. II rote et titube. Manifestement, il est ivre.]) (1960: 132-33).

But what? And why then d observes, the dramatist's goal was 1 confused, and threatened (437), am edition of the play matters seem e making these cuts Genet surely les of the audience. Before writing the dozen paral Genet wrote a much longer, "wi Perhaps the manuscript pages c intentions. But as Genet's publi eliminate them. He considered s dramatist who, Connon reminds us Hoping to learn more about wrote to Barbezat in October introduction. As Barbezat had not) about it at the Centre Pompidou it about his role as Genet's publishel knowledge of such an introduction. the publisher's wife, Olga, arose fr had been sitting. She turned to me : it. Olga Barbezat explained that thi dramatist had written that her husb. Some three weeks after this unpublished introduction to Les ne~ "confirrnation"-from Barbezat bin Monsieur,

Je n'ai pas perdu de VUi aujourd'hui. Vous etiez present, du consacree a Jean Genet et question que vous avez pose publier l'introduction aux J vous pouvez considerer qu'c Je vous prie d'agreer, I

Pages that at the same time exist bl decidedly Genetian overtones, BaJ and "conservateur" of Genet's w Indeed, coupled with this ironic aftl upset, confusion, and threat of the in the cuts made from the first to

Brian Gordon Kennelly

I'il soit coupable ? Et surtout qu'i1 Ions? In peu ironique]): Vous auriez tout a s'agit de juger, probablement de reo C'est grave. II ne s'agit plus de tenons et dont nous sommes .. II houge, iI mache, iI tousse, il :'est tres dur, je Ie sais. Mais je sais : devant eux ([i1 montre Ie public]), nous sommes entre nous. II faudra Isabilite du sang - du notre. Et Ie : Tais-toi. (1958:98-99; 1960:115-16)

, negres, what follows Archibald's "Tu qu'il ne s'agisse d'un sang vivant, chaud, .." and Ville de Saint-Nazaire's "Mais, uons, pour vous, ce n'etait qu'un ~d of its mysterious shroud. In the first pas, comme je te I'ai dit, qu'i1 ne d, souple, fumant, d'un sang qui .1ais, alors, cette comedie que nous 'un divertissement? Elle n 'avail :99; e~phasis added) both men, Archibald's summation ("en apposition ("Elle n'avait pas pour but de tion is drawn to them not by what they in the dark. And in the middle of the -in two lines also cut from the play-, s understanding of what is unfolding on ntered: "Elle sait ce qui se passe ?" the

JI

e eRemeRt sui BBUR'ait RBUS 8ff8sJ:ler II se

ulisse. Diouf affole remet son masque. Les nt tous, en masse, avec madame Felicite, se Icon ou apparaissait la Cour. Le pietinement ~nfin, de la coulisse de droite, sembiant ,ort d'abord Ie Valet. II rote et titube. ~-33).

131

Genet

Valet replies: "Les Negres gueulent assez fort" (1958:100). It is as though he implies that everything has just been spelled out loud and clear.

Suppressing the Truth? But what? And why then did Genet make these cuts? If, as Connon observes, the dramatist's goal was to leave audiences of Les negres feeling upset, confused, and threatened (437), and if, as these cut sequences suggest, in the first edition of the play matters seem even more ambiguous than in the second, by making these cuts Genet surely lessens the potential upset, confusion, and threat of the audience. Before writing the dozen paragraphs that constitute "Pour jouer Les negres" Genet wrote a much longer, "windy" (White 274) introduction to his play. Perhaps the manuscript pages of this introduction hold clues to his true intentions. But as Genet's publisher, Barbezat convinced the dramatist to eliminate them. He considered such an introduction uncharacteristic of the dramatist who, Connon reminds us, was characteristically ambiguous (429). Hoping to learn more about Genet's intentions in writing Les negres, I wrote to Barbezat in October 1993, asking him about the suppressed introduction. As Barbezat had not yet responded at the time, I asked him publicly about it at the Centre Pompidou in Paris, where he had just spoken on a panel about his role as Genet's publisher (see Alphant). In response, Barbezat denied knowledge of such an introduction. But immediately after his claim of ignorance, the publisher's wife, Olga, arose from the front row of the auditorium where she had been sitting. She turned to me and confirmed that Genet had, indeed, written it. Olga Barbezat explained that this introduction was so unlike anything else the dramatist had written that her husband had convinced him never to publish it. Some three weeks after this public confirmation of the existence of an unpublished introduction to Les negres, I received the following letter-a written "confirmation"-from Barbezat himself: Monsieur, Je n'ai pas perdu de vue votre lettre du 161l0/93 et j'y reponds aujourd'hui. Vous etiez present, du reste, a la soiree du Centre Pompidou consacree a Jean Genet et Olga Barbezat vous a repondu a la question que vous avez posee. Genet a pris la decision de ne jamais publier I'introduction aux Negres ; eUe ne sera jamais publiee et vous pouvez considerer qu'eUe n'existe pas. Je vous prie d'agreer, Monsieur, mes salutations distinguees. Marc Barbezat Pages that at the same time exist but do not exist? Whether or not he intends the decidedly Genetian overtones, Barbezat makes his position-both as publisher and "conservateur" of Genet's works-unambiguous, very black and white. Indeed, coupled with this ironic afterword, the seeming reduction of the apparent upset, confusion, and threat of the audience through the lessening of ambiguity in the cuts made from the first to the second published version of Les negres

132

Brian Gordon Kennelly

appears in retrospect counterbalanced in the shift between stages: from genesis to (self-) censorship, from performance to (non-) publication. As critics of Genet, privy for now, at least, only to what Barbezat feels is actually worthy of Genet and to what he has actualIy published, we are faced with-and inevitably frustrated by-the questions within the play and pertaining to it that are raised by Genet's (and Barbezat's?) cuts and the larger, more pressing question of the possible implication or implications these questions have on our past-and will have on our future-interpretations of the play. Perhaps we can accept this frustration at never being able to know the truth as a compromise solution. Like Vertu in her last, unfinished line to Village at the end of the play ("Ce qui est sUr, au moins, c'est que tu ne pourrais jarnais enrouler tes doigts dans mes longs cheveux blonds..."), we might ultimately embrace an impossibility as the only certainty. 8 Webster University REFERENCES Alphant, Marianne, org. "Autour de Jean Genet." Paris: Centre Georges Pompidou, 21 October 1993. Asian, Odette. 1972. "Les paravents de J. Genet." Les voies de la creation theatrale 3:12-107.

-----. 1990. Roger Blin: qui etes-vous ? Paris: La Manufacture.

Blin, Roger. Souvenirs et propos. Paris: Gallimard, 1986.

Bougon, Patrice. "L'ultime version de Haute surveillance." Critique 45.503 (1989):301-02. Coe, Richard N. The Vision of Jean Genet: A Study of His Poems, Plays and Novels. New York: Grove Press, 1968. Connon, Derek F. "Confused? You Will Be: Genet's Les negres and the Art of Upsetting the Audience." French Studies 50.4 (1996):425-38. Decock, Jean. "Les negres aux USA." Obliques 2 (1972):48-50. Esslin, Martin. The Theater of the Absurd. New York: Doubleday, 1961. Frechtman, Bernard. Showbill for The Blacks. New York, 1961. Genet, Jean. 1947. Les bonnes. Decines: L' Arbalete. ----. 1949. Haute surveillance. Paris: Gallimard. -----. 1954. Les bonnes. Sceaux: Pauvert. -----. 1956. Le balcon. Decines: L' Arbalete. -----. 1958. Les negres. Decines: L'Arbalete. -----. 1960. Les negres. Decines: L'Arbalete. -----. 1961. Les paravents. Decines: L'Arbalete. -----. 1962. Le balcon. Decines: L'Arbalete. -----. 1965. Haute surveillance. Paris: Gallimard. -----. 1968a. "Le baleon." (Euvres completes. Paris: Gallimard. IV:33-135. -----. 1968b. "Les bonnes," (Euvres completes. Paris: Gallimard. IV:137-76. -----. 1968c. "Haute surveillance," (Euvres completes. Paris: Gallimard. IV:177-213. -----. 1976. Les paravents. Decines: L'Arbalete. -----. 1979. "Pour jouer Les negres," (Euvres completes. Paris: Gallimard. V:77-78. 8. An earlier version of this article was presented at the Fourteenth Annual International Colloquium on Twentieth-Century French Studies in Columbus. Ohio.

Genet

-----. 1988a. Haute surveillance (nouveU, -----. 1988b. Lettres a Olga et Marc Barb Kennelly, Brian Gordon. "The Unknow Romance Notes 36.3 (1996):243-52. Magnan, Jean-Marie. Essai sur Jean Ge~ Martin, Graham Dunstan. "Racism in Ge 70 (1975):517-25. McMahon, Joseph H. The Imagination I Press, 1963. Saint-Leon, Claire. "Les bonnes de J Studies in Foreign Languages and Mountain Interstate Foreign Langua! University, 1976. 513-16. Thody, Philip. Jean Genet: A Study ~ Hamilton, 1968. Walker, David. 1982. "Introduction," L Educational. 1-39. -----. 1984. "Revolution and Revisions 79.4:817-30. White, Edmund. Genet: A Biography. Ne

Brian Gordon Kennelly

the shift between stages: from genesis to (non-) publication. As critics of Genet, ITbezat feels is actually worthy of Genet d, we are faced with-and inevitably )Iay and pertaining to it that are raised by ~ larger, more pressing question of the se questions have on our past-and will : the play. Perhaps we can accept this the truth as a compromise solution. Like lage at the end of the play ("Ce qui est unais enrouler tes doigts dans mes longs Iy embrace an impossibility as the only

Webster University

ENCES

renet." Paris: Centre Georges Pompidou, 21 Genet." Les voies de la creation theiitrale

Iris: La Manufacture. iallimard, 1986. Haute surveillance." Critique 45.503

: A Study of His Poems, Plays and Novels.

I Be: Genet's Les negres and the Art of ~s 50.4 (1996):425-38. ques 2 (1972):48-50. New York: Doubleday, 1961. :ks. New York, 1961. : Arbalete. mard.

e.

e. llete.

mard. ~s. Paris: Gallimard. IV:33-135. ~tes. Paris: Gallimard. IV: 137-76. completes. Paris: Gallimard. IV:177-213. llete. ~s completes. Paris: Gallimard. V:77-78.

'as presented at the Fourteenth Annual th-Century French Studies in Columbus,

Genet

133

-_••-. 1988a. Haute surveillance (nouvelle version). Paris: Gallimard. -----. 1988b. Lettres a Olga et Marc Barbezat. Decines: L' Arbalete. Kennelly, Brian Gordon. "The Unknown Role of Madame in Genet's Les bonnes." Romance Notes 36.3 (1996):243-52. Magnan, Jean-Marie. Essai sur Jean Genet. Paris: Seghers, 1966. Martin, Graham Dunstan. "Racism in Genet's Les negres." Modem Language Review 70 (1975);517-25. McMahon, Joseph H. The Imagination of Jean Genet. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1963. Saint-Leon, Claire. "Les honnes de Jean Genet: quelle version faut-il jouer?" Studies in Foreign Languages and Literature: The Proceedings of the 23rd Mountain Interstate Foreign Language Conference. Richmond: Eastern Kentucky University, 1976. 513-16. Thody, Philip. Jean Genet: A Study of His Novels and Plays. London: Hamish Hamilton, 1968. Walker, David. 1982. "Introduction." Le halcon, by Jean Genet. London: Methuen Educational. 1-39. -----. 1984. "Revolution and Revisions in Le halcon." Modern Language Review 79.4:817-30. White, Edmund. Genet: A Biography. New York: Knopf, 1993.