ICTP Latin-American Basic Course on FPGA Design for Scientific Instrumentation
Introduction to VLSI Digital Design Paulo Moreira CERN, Switzerland Mar del Plata, Argentina, 15 – 31 March, 2010
Paulo Moreira
Introduction
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Outline • • • • • • • • • •
Introduction Transistors The CMOS inverter Technology Scaling Gates Sequential circuits Storage elements Phase-Locked Loops Example
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Introduction
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History 1906
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1883 Thomas Alva Edison (“Edison Effect”) –
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1904 John Ambrose Fleming (“Fleming Diode”) – – –
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– – – –
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Adds an electrode (the “grid“) to the Fleming diode between the anode and the cathode. With the grid the “diode” becomes an active device. That is, it can be used for the amplification of signals. (Anode current controlled by the grid.)
Vacuum tube devices continued to evolve –
Audion (Triode) 1906, Lee De Forest
Recognizes the importance of Edison’s discovery. Demonstrates the rectification of alternating current signals. Applies the principle to radio reception.
1906 Lee de Forest (“Triode”) –
•
While experimenting with light bulbs, Edison found that a current can flow through vacuum from the lighted filament to a positively biased metal plate but it does not flow to a negatively biased one.
Introduction
They dominated the radio and TV industry till the sixties. They have coexisted with the transistor and even with integrated circuits (you might still have one as your TV screen or computer monitor) By the way, they are miniature particle accelerators They were the “genesis” of today's huge electronics industry. They were however, fragile, relatively large, power hungry, and costly to manufacture. The industry needed something better.
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History •
1925 J. Lilienfeld (“MESFET” ) –
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1928 J. Lilienfeld (“MOSFET” ) –
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Introduction
Canada patent was filed in 1925 and granted in 1927. The device described is what today would be called a Metal Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor. Patent CA272437 : "Method and apparatus for controlling electric current” US patent filed in 1928 and granted in 1933. The device proposed is similar to a modern Metal Oxide Semiconductor FET. The dielectric proposed was the Aluminum Oxide Patent US1900018: "Device for controlling electric current"
It was necessary to wait till 1960 to have a technology capable of producing working devices!
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History •
1940 Russel Ohl (PN junction) –
1947 •
1947 Bardeen and Brattain (Transistor) – – – –
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– –
First point contact transistor (germanium) 1947, John Bardeen and Walter Brattain Bell Laboratories Paulo Moreira
Introduction
Texas instruments
1954 First transistor radio (Regency TR-1) – –
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Higher manufacturability yield than the pointcontact transistor. By the mid fifties the junction transistor replaces the point-contact transistor Main use: telephone systems
1952 Single crystal silicon is fabricated 1954 First commercial silicon transistor –
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1945 Bell labs establish a group to develop an alternative to the vacuum tube. The group was lead by William Shockley. Bardeen and Brattain succeeded in creating an amplifying circuit utilizing a point-contact "transfer resistance" device (the transistor). The transistor was built on germanium. U.S. patent # 2,524,035 (1950)
1950 William Shockley (Junction transistor) –
• •
The PN junction is developed at Bell Labs. The device produces 0.5 V across the junction when exposed to light.
Industrial Development: Engineer Associates Four germanium transistors from Texas Instruments
1955 First field effect transistor –
Bell Labs
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History
1958
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1952 Geoffrey W. A. Dummer (IC concept)
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1954 Oxide masking process developed
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1952 IC concept published 1956 Failed attempt
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Developed at Bell Labs this is the foundation of IC production The process involves: oxidation, photo-masking, etching and diffusion
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1958 Jack Kilby (Integrated circuit)
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1959 Planar technology invented
– – – –
First integrated circuit (germanium), 1958 Jack S. Kilby, Texas Instruments
The planar technology was developed from the contributions of: Jean Hoerni and Robert Noyce (Fairchild) and Kurt Lehovec (Sprag Electric) The planar technology is still the process used today.
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1960 First MOSFET fabricated
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1961 First commercial ICs
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1962 TTL invented 1963 First PMOS IC produced by RCA 1963 CMOS invented
Contained five components, three types: transistors resistors and capacitors Paulo Moreira
Working at Texas Instruments Kilby built a simple oscillator IC with five integrated components U. S. patent # 3,138,743 (1959)
Introduction
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At Bell Labs by Kahng
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Fairchild and Texas Instruments
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Frank Wanlass at Fairchild Semiconductor U. S. patent # 3,356,858 Standby power reduced by six orders of magnitude
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History •
1971 Microprocessor invented – –
Intel produces the first 4-bit microprocessor the 4004 The 4004 was a 3 chip set • • • •
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Processor: • • • •
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Introduction
2 kbit ROM IC 320 bit RAM IC 4-bit processor Each housed in a 16-pin DIP package 10 µm silicon gate PMOS process ~2300 transistors Clock speed: 0.108 MHz Die size: 13.5 mm2
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History •
1982 Intel 80286 – – – – – –
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Introduction
1.5 µm silicon gate CMOS process 1 polysilicon layer 2 metal layers 134,000 transistors 6 to 12 MHz clock speed Die size 68.7 mm2
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History •
2000 Pentium 4 – – – – – – –
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Introduction
0.18 µm silicon gate CMOS process 1 polysilicon layer 6 metal layers Fabrication: 21 mask layers 42,000,000 transistors 1,400 to 1,500 MHz clock speed Die size 224 mm2
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History
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Introduction
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“Moore’s Law” •
In 1965 Gordon Moore (then at Fairchild Corporation) noted that: – – –
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“Integration complexity doubles every three years”
This statement is commonly know as “Moore’s Law” It has proven to be “correct” till this day
What is behind this fantastic pace of development of the IC technologies? – – –
Is it the “technological” will and motivation of the people involved? Or/and is it the economical drive the main force? Semiconductor industry sales: • • • • •
1962 > $1 – billion 1978 > $10 – billion 1994 > $100 – billion 2007 > $268 – billion 2009 > $226 – billion (-11.4% than in 2008)
From 1960 until 2000, worldwide semiconductor revenues have increased an average of 14.9% per year! Source: IC Knowledge LLC, “Revenue trends,” September 4, 2006
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ITRS 2009 - Half- Pitch Definition
ITRS = International Technology Roadmap for Semiconductors Paulo Moreira Introduction
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ITRS 2009 - Memory Scaling
From ITRS 2009 http://www.itrs.net Paulo Moreira
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ITRS 2009 - MPU Scaling
From ITRS 2009 http://www.itrs.net Paulo Moreira
Introduction
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ITRS 2009 - Memory-Cell Size
Book
Music CD
Tech to store 1 item/cm2 Paulo Moreira
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ITRS 2009 – Memory Size
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ITRS 2009 – MPU Size
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Transistor Count is not all Intel Core Duo
Human Brain
Power
5 – 70 W
10 – 40 W
Typical Frequency
1 GHz
0.1 Hz
Number of Elements
~ 109
~ 1011
Interconnections per element
2-4 In / 1-3 out
/ ~10,000 Out
Elementary operation
Simple, Boolean
Complex, Nonlinear (choice)
Capacitance per interconnection
0.2 pF /mm
~1 pF
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Introduction
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Frequency
Frequency (MHz)
10000
Doubles every 2 years
1000 100
486 10
8085
1 0.1 1970
8086 286
P6 Pentium ® proc
386
8080 8008 4004 1980
1990 Year
2000
2010
Lead Microprocessors frequency doubles every 2 years Paulo Moreira
Introduction
19 (Borrowed from A. Marchioro / CERN)
Power Dissipation 100 P6 Pentium ® proc
Power (Watts)
NMOS → CMOS
10 8086 286 1
8008 4004
486 386
8085 8080
0.1 1971
1974
1978
1985
1992
2000
Year
Lead Microprocessors power continues to increase Paulo Moreira
Introduction
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“More than Moore”
From ITRS 2009 http://www.itrs.net Paulo Moreira
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Design Trade-Offs Circuit Speed
Integration Level
Design Style (Tools)
Packaging Technology Density
Circuit Power Chip Size I/O Pins
Reliability
Chip Yield Chip Cost Test Time
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Introduction
22 (Borrowed from A. Marchioro / CERN)
Driving force: Economics •
Traditionally, the cost/function in an IC is reduced by 25% to 30% a year. – This allows the electronics market to growth at ~17% / year •
[Recent economic crisis has resulted in 2009 revenues of just more than $200 billion, which was the approximate size of the market nine years before in 2000!]
•
To achieve this, the number of functions/IC has to be increased. This demands for: – Increase of the transistors count • increased functionality
– Increase of the clock speed
• more operations per unit time = increased functionality
– Decrease of the feature size
• contains the area increase = contains price • improves performance
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Driving force: Economics • Increase productivity: – Increase equipment throughput – Increase manufacturing yields – Increase the number of chips on a wafer: • reduce the area of the chip: – smaller feature size & redesign
– Use the largest wafer size available
Example of a cost effective product (typically DRAM): the initial IC area is reduced to 50% after 3 years and to 35% after 6 years.
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VLSI Advanced Technology
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“Is there a limit?” From Carver Mead, “Scaling of MOS Technology to Submicrometer Feature Size”, Journal of VLSI Signal Processing, Vol. 8, n. 1, July 1994, p. 9
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Introduction
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“Is there
a
limit
?”
• High volume factory:
– Total capacity: 40K Wafer Starts Per Month (WSPM) (180 nm) – Total capital cost: $2.7B • • • •
Production equipment: 80% Facilities: 15% Material handling systems: 3% Factory information & control: 2%
• Worldwide semiconductor market revenues in 2009: ~$226B – Semiconductor market growth rate: ~15% / year – Equipment market growth rate: ~19.4% / year – Forecast for 2010: • Semiconductor spending: $40B • Equipment spending: $29B
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Design abstraction levels High System Specification
Level of Abstraction
System
Functional Module
+
Gate
Circuit
G
Device
S
D
Low Paulo Moreira
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