Hagia Sophia “Aghia Sophia” redirects here. For the steamship, see mosque. By that point, the church had fallen into a state SS Aghia Sophia. For other uses, see Hagia Sophia of disrepair. Nevertheless, the Christian cathedral made (disambiguation). a strong impression on the new Ottoman rulers and they decided to convert it into a mosque.[9][10] The bells, altar, iconostasis, and sacrificial vessels and other relics were Hagia Sophia (from the Greek: Ἁγία Σοφία, "Holy Wisdom"; Latin: Sancta Sophia or Sancta Sapientia; removed and the mosaics depicting Jesus, his Mother Turkish: Ayasofya) is a former Christian patriarchal Mary, Christian saints and angels were also removed or basilica (church), later an imperial mosque, and now a plastered over. Islamic features—such as the mihrab, museum (Ayasofya Müzesi) in Istanbul, Turkey. From minbar, and four minarets—were added. It remained a the date of its construction in 537 until 1453, it served as mosque until 1931, when it was closed to the public for an Orthodox cathedral and seat of the Patriarch of Con- four years. It was re-opened in 1935 as a museum by the stantinople,[1] except between 1204 and 1261, when it Republic of Turkey. Hagia Sophia is currently (2014) the in Turkey, attracting almost was converted to a Roman Catholic cathedral under the second-most visited museum[11] 3.3 million visitors annually. Latin Empire. The building was a mosque from 29 May 1453 until 1931. It was then secularized and opened as a museum on 1 February 1935.[2]

From its initial conversion until the construction of the nearby Sultan Ahmed Mosque (Blue Mosque of Istanbul) in 1616, it was the principal mosque of Istanbul. The Byzantine architecture of the Hagia Sophia served as inspiration for many other Ottoman mosques, such as the Blue Mosque, the Şehzade Mosque, the Süleymaniye Mosque, the Rüstem Pasha Mosque and the Kılıç Ali Paşa Mosque.

Famous in particular for its massive dome, it is considered the epitome of Byzantine architecture[3] and is said to have “changed the history of architecture”.[4] It remained the world’s largest cathedral for nearly a thousand years, until Seville Cathedral was completed in 1520. The current building was originally constructed as a church between 532 and 537 on the orders of the Byzantine Emperor Justinian I and was the third Church of the Holy Wisdom to occupy the site, the previous two having both 1 History been destroyed by rioters. It was designed by the Greek geometers Isidore of Miletus and Anthemius of Tralles.[5] 1.1 First church The church was dedicated to the Wisdom of God, the Logos, the second person of the Holy Trinity,[6] The first church on the site was known as the Μεγάλη its patronal feast taking place on 25 December, the Ἐκκλησία (Megálē Ekklēsíā, “Great Church”), or in [12][13] because of its larger dicommemoration of the birth of the incarnation of the Lo- Latin “Magna Ecclesia”, [6] gos in Christ. Although sometimes referred to as Sancta mensions in comparison to the contemporary churches in [6] Sophia (as though it were named after Saint Sophia), the City. Inaugurated on 15 February 360 (during the sophia being the phonetic spelling in Latin of the Greek reign of Constantius II) by the Arian bishop Eudoxius of [14] it was built next to the area where the imword for wisdom, its full name in Greek is Ναός τῆς Antioch, Ἁγίας τοῦ Θεοῦ Σοφίας, “Shrine of the Holy Wisdom perial palace was being developed. The nearby Hagia Eirene (“Holy Peace”) church was completed earlier and of God”.[7][8] served as cathedral until the Great Church was comThe church contained a large collection of holy relics and pleted. Both churches acted together as the principal featured, among other things, a 15-metre (49 ft) silver churches of the Byzantine Empire. iconostasis. The focal point of the Eastern Orthodox Church for nearly one thousand years, the building wit- Writing in 440, Socrates of Constantinople claimed that nessed the excommunication of Patriarch Michael I Ceru- the church was built by Constantius II, who was work[14] A tradition which is not older than larius on the part of Humbert of Silva Candida, the papal ing on it in 346. envoy of Pope Leo IX in 1054, an act which is commonly the 7th – 8th century, reports that the edifice was built by Constantine the Great.[14] Zonaras reconciles the two considered the start of the Great Schism. opinions, writing that Constantius had repaired the ediIn 1453, Constantinople was conquered by the Ottoman fice consecrated by Eusebius of Nicomedia, after it had Turks under Sultan Mehmed II, who ordered this collapsed.[14] Since Eusebius was bishop of Constantinomain church of Orthodox Christianity converted into a ple from 339 to 341, and Constantine died in 337, it 1

2

1 HISTORY

seems possible that the first church was erected by the latter.[14] The edifice was built as a traditional Latin colonnaded basilica with galleries and a wooden roof. It was preceded by an atrium. It was claimed to be one of the world’s most outstanding monuments at the time. The Patriarch of Constantinople John Chrysostom came into a conflict with Empress Aelia Eudoxia, wife of the emperor Arcadius, and was sent into exile on 20 June 404. During the subsequent riots, this first church was largely burned down.[14] Nothing remains of the first church today.

1.2

and Ephesus is a later invention.[15] Even though they were made specifically for Hagia Sophia, the columns show variations in size.[16] More than ten thousand people were employed. This new church was contemporaneously recognized as a major work of architecture. The theories of Heron of Alexandria may have been utilized to address the challenges presented by building such an expansive dome over so large a space. The emperor, together with the Patriarch Menas, inaugurated the new basilica on 27 December 537 – 5 years and 10 months after construction start – with much pomp.[17][18][19] The mosaics inside the church were, however, only completed under the reign of Emperor Justin II (565–578).

Second church

Hagia Sophia was the seat of the Orthodox patriarch of Constantinople and a principal setting for Byzantine A second church was ordered by Theodosius II, who inau- imperial ceremonies, such as coronations. Like other gurated it on 10 October 415. The basilica with a wooden churches throughout Christendom, the basilica offered roof was built by architect Rufinus. A fire started during sanctuary from persecution to outlaws. the tumult of the Nika Revolt and burned the second HaEarthquakes in August 553 and on 14 December 557 gia Sophia to the ground on 13–14 January 532. caused cracks in the main dome and eastern half-dome. Several marble blocks from the second church survive to The main dome collapsed completely during a subsequent the present; among them are reliefs depicting 12 lambs earthquake on 7 May 558,[20] destroying the ambon, alrepresenting the 12 apostles. Originally part of a mon- tar, and ciborium. The crash was due mainly to the too umental front entrance, they now reside in an excavation high bearing load and to the enormous shearing load of pit adjacent to the museum’s entrance after they were dis- the dome, which was too flat.[17] These caused the decovered in 1935 beneath the western courtyard by A. M. formation of the piers which sustained the dome.[17] The Schneider. Further digging was forsaken for fear of im- emperor ordered an immediate restoration. He entrusted pinging on the integrity of the building. it to Isidorus the Younger, nephew of Isidore of Miletus, who used lighter materials and elevated the dome by “30 feet”[17] (about 6.25 meters or 20.5 feet) – giv1.3 Third church (current structure) ing the building its current interior height of 55.6 meters (182 ft).[21] Moreover, Isidorus changed the dome type, On 23 February 532, only a few weeks after the destrucerecting a ribbed dome with pendentives, whose diametion of the second basilica, Emperor Justinian I decided ter lay between 32.7 and 33.5 m.[17] Under Justinian’s orto build a third and entirely different basilica, larger and ders, eight Corinthian columns were disassembled from more majestic than its predecessors. Baalbek, Lebanon, and shipped to Constantinople around 560.[22] This reconstruction, giving the church its present 6th-century form, was completed in 562. The Byzantine poet Paul the Silentiary composed a long epic poem (still extant), known as Ekphrasis, for the rededication of the basilica presided over by Patriarch Eutychius on 23 December 562.

Construction of church depicted in codex Manasses Chronicle (14th century)

In 726, the emperor Leo the Isaurian issued a series of edicts against the veneration of images, ordering the army to destroy all icons – ushering in the period of Byzantine iconoclasm. At that time, all religious pictures and statues were removed from the Hagia Sophia. After a brief reprieve under Empress Irene (797–802), the iconoclasts made a comeback. Emperor Theophilus (829–842) was strongly influenced by Islamic art,[23] which forbids the representation of living beings.[24] He had a two-winged bronze door with his monograms installed at the southern entrance of the church.

Justinian chose physicist Isidore of Miletus and mathematician Anthemius of Tralles as architects; Anthemius, however, died within the first year of the endeavor. The construction is described in the Byzantine historian Procopius' On Buildings (Peri ktismatōn, Latin: De aedi- The basilica suffered damage, first in a great fire in 859, ficiis). Columns and other marbles were brought from all and again in an earthquake on 8 January 869, that made a over the empire, throughout the Mediterranean. The idea half-dome collapse. Emperor Basil I ordered the church of these columns being spoils from cities such as Rome

1.4

Mosque (1453–1935)

3 at a ceremony which closely followed Byzantine practices. Enrico Dandolo, the Doge of Venice who commanded the sack and invasion of the city by the Latin Crusaders in 1204, is buried inside the church. The tomb inscription carrying his name, which has become a part of the floor decoration, was spat upon by many of the angry Byzantines who recaptured Constantinople in 1261.[28] However, restoration led by the brothers Gaspare and Giuseppe Fossati during the period 1847– 1849 cast doubt upon the authenticity of the doge’s grave; it is more likely a symbolic memorial rather than burial site. After the recapture in 1261 by the Byzantines, the church was in a dilapidated state. In 1317, emperor Andronicus II ordered four new buttresses (Πυραμὶδας, Greek:"Piramídas”) to be built in the eastern and northern parts of the church, financing them with the inheritance of his deceased wife, Irene.[29] New cracks developed in the dome after the earthquake of October 1344, and several parts of the building collapsed on 19 May 1346; consequently, the church was closed until 1354, when repairs were undertaken by architects Astras and Peralta.

1.4 Mosque (1453–1935)

In his book De caerimoniis aulae Byzantinae (“Book of Ceremonies”), Emperor Constantine VII (913–919) wrote a detailed account of the ceremonies held in the Hagia Sophia by the emperor and the patriarch.

Constantinople was taken by the Ottomans on 29 May 1453. In accordance with the custom at the time Sultan Mehmet II allowed his troops three days of unbridled pillage once the city fell, after which he would claim its contents for himself.[30][31] Hagia Sophia was not exempted from the pillage, becoming its focal point as the invaders believed it to contain the greatest treasures of the city.[32] Shortly after the city’s defenses collapsed, pillagers made their way to the Hagia Sophia and battered down its doors.[33] Throughout the siege worshipers participated in the Holy Liturgy and Prayer of the Hours at the Hagia Sophia, and the church formed a refuge for many of those who were unable to contribute to the city’s defense, such as women, children and elderly.[34][35] Trapped in the church, congregants and refugees became spoils to be divided amongst the Ottoman invaders. The building was desecrated and looted, and occupants enslaved, violated or slaughtered;[32] while elderly and infirm were killed, women and girls were raped and the remainder chained and sold into slavery.[33] Priests continued to perform Christian rites until stopped by the invaders.[33] When the Sultan and his cohort entered the church, he insisted it should be at once transformed into a mosque. One of the Ulama then climbed the pulpit and recited the Shahada.[29][36]

Upon the capture of Constantinople during the Fourth Crusade, the church was ransacked and desecrated by the Latin Christians, as described by the Byzantine historian Niketas Choniates. During the Latin occupation of Constantinople (1204–1261) the church became a Roman Catholic cathedral. Baldwin I of Constantinople was crowned emperor on 16 May 1204 in Hagia Sophia,

As described by several Western visitors (such as the Córdoban nobleman Pero Tafur[37] and the Florentine Cristoforo Buondelmonti),[38] the church was in a dilapidated state, with several of its doors fallen from their hinges; Mehmed II ordered a renovation as well as the conversion. Mehmet attended the first Friday prayer in the mosque on 1 June 1453.[39] Aya Sofya became the

The vaulting of the nave. (annotations)

repaired. After the great earthquake of 25 October 989, which collapsed the Western dome arch, Emperor Basil II asked for the Armenian architect Trdat, creator of the great churches of Ani and Argina, to direct the repairs.[25] He erected again and reinforced the fallen dome arch, and rebuilt the west side of the dome with 15 dome ribs.[26] The extent of the damage required six years of repair and reconstruction; the church was re-opened on 13 May 994. At the end of the reconstruction, the church’s decorations were renovated, including the additions of paintings of four immense cherubs, a new depiction of Christ on the dome, and on the apse a new depiction of the Virgin Mary holding Jesus between the apostles Peter and Paul.[27] On the great side arches were painted the prophets and the teachers of the church.[27]

4

Fountain (Şadırvan) for ritual ablutions

first imperial mosque of Istanbul.[40] To the corresponding Waqf were endowed most of the existing houses in the city and the area of the future Topkapı Palace.[29] From 1478, 2,360 shops, 1,300 houses, 4 caravanserais, 30 boza shops, and 23 shops of sheep heads and trotters gave their income to the foundation.[41] Through the imperial charters of 1520 (AH 926) and 1547 (AH 954) shops and parts of the Grand Bazaar and other markets were added to the foundation.[29] Before 1481 a small minaret was erected on the southwest corner of the building, above the stair tower.[29] Later, the subsequent sultan, Bayezid II (1481–1512), built another minaret at the northeast corner.[29] One of these collapsed after the earthquake of 1509,[29] and around the middle of the 16th century they were both replaced by two diagonally opposite minarets built at the east and west corners of the edifice.[29]

1 HISTORY In the 16th century the sultan Suleiman the Magnificent (1520–1566) brought back two colossal candlesticks from his conquest of Hungary. They were placed on either side of the mihrab. During the reign of Selim II (1566–1574), the building started showing signs of fatigue and was extensively strengthened with the addition of structural supports to its exterior by the great Ottoman architect Mimar Sinan, who is also considered one of the world’s first earthquake engineers.[42] In addition to strengthening the historic Byzantine structure, Sinan built the two additional large minarets at the western end of the building, the original sultan’s lodge, and the Türbe (mausoleum) of Selim II to the southeast of the building in 1576-7 / AH 984. In order to do that, parts of the Patriarchate at the south corner of the building were pulled down the previous year.[29] Moreover, the golden crescent was mounted on the top of the dome,[29] while a respect zone 35 arşin (about 24 m) wide was imposed around the building, pulling down all the houses which in the meantime had nested around it.[29] Later his türbe hosted also 43 tombs of Ottoman princes.[29] In 1594 / AH 1004 Mimar (court architect) Davud Ağa built the türbe of Murad III (1574–1595), where the Sultan and his Valide, Safiye Sultan were later buried.[29] The octagonal mausoleum of their son Mehmed III (1595–1603) and his Valide was built next to it in 1608 / 1017 H by royal architect Dalgiç Mehmet Aĝa.[43] His son Mustafa I (1617–1618; 1622– 1623) converted the baptistery into his türbe.[43] Murad III had also two large alabaster Hellenistic urns transported from Pergamon and placed on two sides of the nave.[29] In 1717, under Sultan Ahmed III (1703–1730), the crumbling plaster of the interior was renovated, contributing indirectly to the preservation of many mosaics, which otherwise would have been destroyed by mosque workers.[43] In fact, it was usual for them to sell mosaics stones – believed to be talismans – to the visitors.[43] Sultan Mahmud I ordered the restoration of the building in 1739 and added a medrese (a Koranic school, now the library of the museum), an Imaret (soup kitchen for distribution to the poor) and a library, and in 1740 a Şadirvan (fountain for ritual ablutions), thus transforming it into a külliye, i.e. a social complex. At the same time a new sultan’s lodge and a new mihrab were built inside. 1.4.1 Renovation of 1847

The mihrab located in the apse where the altar used to stand, pointing towards Mecca

The most famous restoration of the Aya Sofya was ordered by Sultan Abdülmecid and completed by eight hundred workers between 1847 and 1849, under the supervision of the Swiss-Italian architect brothers Gaspare and Giuseppe Fossati. The brothers consolidated the dome and vaults, straightened the columns, and revised the decoration of the exterior and the interior of the building. The mosaics in the upper gallery were uncovered and cleaned, although many were re-covered “for protection against further damage”. The old chandeliers were

5 replaced by new pendant ones. New gigantic circularframed disks or medallions were hung on columns. These were inscribed with the names of Allah, Muhammad, the first four caliphs Abu Bakr, Umar, Uthman and Ali, and the two grandchildren of Muhammad: Hassan and Hussain, by the calligrapher Kazasker Mustafa İzzed Effendi (1801–1877). In 1850 the architect Fossati built a new sultan’s lodge or loge in a Neo-Byzantine style connected to the royal pavilion behind the mosque. They also renovated the minbar and mihrab. Outside the main building, the minarets were repaired and altered so that they were of equal height.[44][45] A timekeeper’s building and a new madrasah were built. When the restoration was finished, the mosque was re-opened with ceremonial pomp on 13 July 1849.

1.5

Museum (1935–present)

down over the fragile frescoes and mosaics. Moisture entered from below as well. Rising ground water had raised the level of humidity within the monument, creating an unstable environment for stone and paint. With the help of financial services company American Express, WMF secured a series of grants from 1997 to 2002 for the restoration of the dome. The first stage of work involved the structural stabilization and repair of the cracked roof, which was undertaken with the participation of the Turkish Ministry of Culture. The second phase, the preservation of the dome’s interior, afforded the opportunity to employ and train young Turkish conservators in the care of mosaics. By 2006, the WMF project was complete, though many other areas of Hagia Sophia continue to require significant stability improvement, restoration and conservation.[46] Haghia Sophia is currently (2014) the second most visited museum in Turkey, attracting almost 3.3 million visitors annually.[11] Although use of the complex as a place of worship (mosque or church) was strictly prohibited,[47] in 2006 the Turkish government allowed the allocation of a small room in the museum complex to be used as a prayer room for Christian and Muslim museum staff,[48] and since 2013 from the minarets of the museum the muezzin sings the call to prayer twice per day, in the afternoon.[49] In 2007, Greek American politician Chris Spirou launched an international organization “Free Agia Sophia Council” championing the cause of restoring the building to its original function as a Christian church.[50][51][52] Since the early 2010s, several campaigns and government high officials, notably Turkey’s deputy prime minister Bülent Arınç in November 2013, have been demanding that Hagia Sophia be converted into a mosque again.[53][54][55] In an attempt to retaliate against Pope Francis after his acknowledgment of the Armenian Genocide, the Mufti of Ankara, Mefail Hızlı, stated that the conversion of Haghia Sophia into a mosque will be accelerated.[56][57]

2 Architecture

The interior undergoing restoration

In 1935, the first Turkish President and founder of the Republic of Turkey, Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, transformed the building into a museum. The carpets were removed and the marble floor decorations such as the Omphalion appeared for the first time in centuries, while the white plaster covering many of the mosaics was removed. Nevertheless, the condition of the structure deteriorated, and Section of a “restored” design the World Monuments Fund placed Hagia Sophia on 1996 World Monuments Watch, and again in 1998. The Hagia Sophia is one of the greatest surviving examples building’s copper roof had cracked, causing water to leak of Byzantine architecture.[3] Its interior is decorated with

6

2 ARCHITECTURE leads up to the upper gallery.

2.2 Upper Gallery

a) Plan of the gallery (upper half) b) Plan of the ground floor (lower half)

mosaics and marble pillars and coverings of great artistic value. The temple itself was so richly and artistically decorated that Justinian proclaimed, "Solomon, I have outdone thee!" (Νενίκηκά σε Σολομών). Justinian himself had overseen the completion of the greatest cathedral ever built up to that time, and it was to remain the largest West side of the upper gallery cathedral for 1,000 years up until the completion of the The upper gallery is laid out in a horseshoe shape that cathedral in Seville in Spain.[58] encloses the nave until the apse. Several mosaics are preJustinian’s basilica was at once the culminating architec- served in the upper gallery, an area traditionally reserved tural achievement of late antiquity and the first master- for the empress and her court. The best-preserved mopiece of Byzantine architecture. Its influence, both archi- saics are located in the southern part of the gallery. tecturally and liturgically, was widespread and enduring in the Eastern Orthodox, Roman Catholic, and Muslim The upper gallery contains runic graffiti presumed to be from the Varangian Guard. worlds alike. The vast interior has a complex structure. The nave is covered by a central dome which at its maximum is 55.6 2.3 m (182 ft 5 in) from floor level and rests on an arcade of 40 arched windows. Repairs to its structure have left the dome somewhat elliptical, with the diameter varying between 31.24 and 30.86 m (102 ft 6 in and 101 ft 3 in).

Dome

At the western entrance side and eastern liturgical side, there are arched openings extended by half domes of identical diameter to the central dome, carried on smaller semi-domed exedras; a hierarchy of dome-headed elements built up to create a vast oblong interior crowned by the central dome, with a clear span of 76.2 m (250 ft).[3] Interior surfaces are sheathed with polychrome marbles, green and white with purple porphyry, and gold mosaics. The exterior, clad in stucco, was tinted yellow and red during restorations in the 19th century at the direction of Cupola dome, semi-dome, and apse the Fossati architects.

2.1

Narthex and portals

The Imperial Gate was the main entrance between the exo- and esonarthex. It was reserved only for the emperor. The Byzantine mosaic above the portal depicts Christ and an unnamed Emperor. A long ramp from the northern part of the outer narthex

The dome of Hagia Sophia has spurred particular interest for many art historians, architects and engineers because of the innovative way the original architects envisioned it. The cupola is carried on four spherical triangular pendentives, an element which was first fully realized in this building. The pendentives implement the transition from the circular base of the dome to the rectangular base below,[59][60] restraining the lateral forces of the dome and allow its weight to flow downwards. They were

2.4

Minarets

7 appearance of hovering above. This effect was achieved by inserting forty windows around the base of the original structure. Moreover, the insertion of the windows in the dome structure lowers its weight.

2.4 Minarets One of the minarets (at southwest) was built from red brick while the other three were built from white limestone and sandstone, of which the slender northeast column was erected by Sultan Bayezid II while the two larger minarets to the west were erected by Sultan Selim II and designed by the famous Ottoman architect Mimar Sinan.[62]

See commons file for annotations

reinforced with buttresses during Byzantine and later during Ottoman times, under the guidance of the architect Sinan. The weight of the dome remained a problem for most of the building’s existence. The original cupola collapsed entirely after the quake of 558; in 563 a new dome was built by Isidore the younger, a nephew of Isidore of Miletus. Unlike the original, this included 40 ribs and was slightly taller, in order to lower the lateral forces on the church walls. A larger section of the second dome collapsed as well, in two episodes, so that today only two sections of the present dome, in the north and south side, still date from the 562 reconstruction. Of the whole dome’s 40 ribs, the surviving north section contains 8 ribs, while the south section includes 6 ribs.[61] Although this design stabilizes the dome and the surrounding walls and arches, the actual construction of the walls of Hagia Sophia weakened the overall structure. The bricklayers used more mortar than brick, weakening the walls. The structure would have been more stable if the builders at least let the mortar cure before they began the next layer; however, they did not do this. When the dome was erected, its weight caused the walls to lean outward because of the wet mortar underneath. When Isidore the Younger rebuilt the fallen cupola, he had to first build up the interior of the walls to make them vertical again. Additionally, the architect raised the height of the rebuilt dome by approximately six metres so that the lateral forces would not be as strong and its weight would flow more easily down into the walls. Moreover, he shaped the new cupola like a scalloped shell or the inside of an umbrella, with ribs that extend from the top down to the base. These ribs allow the weight of the dome to flow between the windows, down the pendentives, and ultimately to the foundation.

3 Notable elements and decorations Originally, under Justinian’s reign, the interior decorations consisted of abstract designs on marble slabs on the walls and floors, as well as mosaics on the curving vaults. Of these mosaics, one can still see the two archangels Gabriel and Michael in the spandrels of the bema. There were already a few figurative decorations, as attested by the eulogy of Paul the Silentiary. The spandrels of the gallery are revetted in opus sectile, showing patterns and figures of flowers and birds in precisely cut pieces of white marble set against a background of black marble. In later stages figurative mosaics were added, which were destroyed during the iconoclastic controversy (726–843). Present mosaics are from the posticonoclastic period. The number of treasures, relics and miracle-working, painted icons of the Hagia Sophia grew progressively richer into an amazing collection. Apart from the mosaics, a large number of figurative decorations were added during the second half of the 9th century: an image of Christ in the central dome; Orthodox saints, prophets and Church Fathers in the tympana below; historical figures connected with this church, such as Patriarch Ignatius; some scenes from the gospel in the galleries. Basil II let paint on each of the four pendentives a giant six-winged Cherub.[27] The Ottomans covered their face with a golden halo,[27] but in 2009 one of them was restored to the original state.[63]

3.1 Loge of the Empress

The Loge of the Empress is located in the centre of the upper enclosure, or gallery, of the Hagia Sophia. From there the empress and the court-ladies would watch the Hagia Sophia is famous for the light that reflects every- proceedings down below. A round, green stone marks where in the interior of the nave, giving the dome the the spot where the throne of the empress stood.

8

3.2

3

NOTABLE ELEMENTS AND DECORATIONS

Lustration urns

The church was richly decorated with mosaics throughout the centuries. They either depicted the Virgin Mother, JeTwo huge marble lustration (ritual purification) urns were sus, saints, or emperors and empresses. Other parts were brought from Pergamon during the reign of Sultan Murad decorated in a purely decorative style with geometric patIII. Stemming from the Hellenistic period, they are carved terns. from single blocks of marble.[29] The mosaics however for their most part date to after the end of the Byzantine Iconoclasm of 800 AD. During the Sack of Constantinople in 1204, the Latin Crusaders vandalized valuable items in every important The Marble Door inside the Hagia Sophia is located in the Byzantine structure of the city, including the golden mosouthern upper enclosure, or gallery. It was used by the saics of the Hagia Sophia. Many of these items were participants in synods, they entered and left the meeting shipped to Venice, whose Doge, Enrico Dandolo, had organized the invasion and sack of Constantinople. chamber through this door.

3.3

Marble Door

3.4

Wishing column

At the northwest of the building there is a column with a hole in the middle covered by bronze plates. This column goes by different names; the perspiring column, the wishing column, the sweating column or the crying column. The column is said to be damp when touched and have supernatural powers.[64] The legend states that since St. Gregory the Miracle Worker appeared at the column in year 1200, the column is moist. It is believed that touching the moisture cures many illnesses.[65][66]

3.5

Mosaics

Ceiling decoration showing original Christian cross still visible through the later aniconic decoration

3.5.1 19th-century restoration Following the building’s conversion into a mosque in 1453, many of its mosaics were covered with plaster, due to Islam’s ban on representational imagery. This process was not completed at once, and reports exist from the 17th century in which travellers note that they could still see Christian images in the former church. In 1847–49, the building was restored by two Swiss Italian Fossati brothers, Gaspare and Giuseppe, and Sultan Abdülmecid allowed them to also document any mosaics they might discover during this process. This work did not include repairing the mosaics and after recording the details about an image, the Fossatis painted it over again. The Fossatis restored the mosaics of the two hexapteryga (singular Greek: εξαπτέρυγον, pr. hexapterygon, sixwinged angel); it is uncertain whether they are seraphim or cherubim) located on the two east pendentives, covering their faces again before the end of the restoration.[67] The other two placed on the west pendentives are copies in paint created by the Fossatis, since they could find no surviving remains of them.[67] As in this case, the architects reproduced in paint damaged decorative mosaic patterns, sometimes redesigning them in the process. The Fossati records are the primary sources about a number of mosaic images now believed to have been completely or partially destroyed in the 1894 Istanbul earthquake. These include a mosaic over a now-unidentified Door of the Poor, a large image of a jewel-encrusted cross, and a large number of images of angels, saints, patriarchs, and church fathers. Most of the missing images were located in the building’s two tympana. One mosaic they documented is Christ Pantocrator in a circle, which would indicate it to be a ceiling mosaic, possibly even of the main dome which was later covered and painted over with Islamic calligraphy that expounds God as the light of the universe. The drawings of the Hagia Sophia mosaics are today kept in the Cantonal Archive of Ticino.[68]

3.5 3.5.2

Mosaics

9

20th-century restoration

A large number of mosaics were uncovered in the 1930s by a team from the Byzantine Institute of America led by Thomas Whittemore. The team chose to let a number of simple cross images remain covered by plaster, but uncovered all major mosaics found. Because of its long history as both a church and a mosque, a particular challenge arises in the restoration process. Christian iconographic mosaics can be uncovered, but often at the expense of important and historic Islamic art. Restorers have attempted to maintain a balance between both Christian and Islamic cultures. In particular, much controversy rests upon whether the Islamic calligraphy on the dome of the cathedral should be removed, in order to permit the underlying Pantocrator mosaic of Christ as Master of the World, to be exhibited (assuming the mosaic still exists).[69] 3.5.3

Imperial Gate mosaic

Southwestern entrance mosaic

a back, her feet resting on a pedestal, embellished with precious stones. The Child Christ sits on her lap, giving His blessing and holding a scroll in His left hand. On her left side stands emperor Constantine in ceremonial attire, presenting a model of the city to Mary. The inscription next to him says: “Great emperor Constantine of the Saints”. On her right side stands emperor Justinian I, offering a model of the Hagia Sophia. The medallions on both sides of the Virgin’s head carry the monograms MP and ΘY, an abbreviation of "Mētēr" and "Theou", meaning “Mother of God”.[73] 3.5.5 Apse mosaics

Imperial gate mosaic

The Imperial Gate mosaic is located in the tympanum above that gate, which was used only by the emperors when entering the church. Based on style analysis, it has been dated to the late 9th or early 10th century. The emperor with a nimbus or halo could possibly represent emperor Leo VI the Wise or his son Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus bowing down before Christ Pantocrator, seated on a jeweled throne, giving His blessing and holding in His left hand an open book.[70] The text on the book reads as follows: “Peace be with you. I am the light of the world”. (John 20:19; 20:26; 8:12) On each side of Christ’s shoulders is a circular medallion: on His left the Archangel Gabriel, holding a staff, on His right His Mother Mary.[71] 3.5.4

Southwestern entrance mosaic

The southwestern entrance mosaic, situated in the tympanum of the southwestern entrance, dates from the reign Apse mosaic of the Virgin and Child of Basil II.[72] It was rediscovered during the restorations of 1849 by Fossati. The Virgin sits on a throne without The Virgin and Child mosaic was the first of the post-

10

3

NOTABLE ELEMENTS AND DECORATIONS

iconoclastic mosaics. It was inaugurated on 29 March 867 by Patriarch Photius and the emperors Michael III and Basil I. This mosaic is situated in a high location on the half dome of the apse. Mary is sitting on a throne without a back, holding the Child Jesus on her lap. Her feet rest on a pedestal. Both the pedestal and the throne are adorned with precious stones. The portraits of the archangels Gabriel and Michael (largely destroyed) in the bema of the arch also date from the 9th century. The mosaics are set against the original golden background of the 6th century. These mosaics were believed to be a reconstruction of the mosaics of the 6th century that were previously destroyed during the iconoclastic era by the Byzantines of that time, as represented in the inaugural sermon by the patriarch Photios. However, no record of figural decoration of Hagia Sophia exists before this time.[74]

The Empress Zoe mosaic on the eastern wall of the southern gallery date from the 11th century. Christ Pantocrator, clad in the dark blue robe (as is the custom in Byzantine art), is seated in the middle against a golden background, giving His blessing with the right hand and holding the Bible in His left hand. On either side of His head are the monograms IC and XC, meaning Iēsous Khristos. He is flanked by Constantine IX Monomachus and Empress Zoe, both in ceremonial costumes. He is offering a purse, as symbol of the donation he made to the church, while she is holding a scroll, symbol of the donations she made. The inscription over the head of the emperor says: “Constantine, pious emperor in Christ the God, king of the Romans, Monomachus”. The inscription over the head of the empress reads as follows: “Zoë, the very pious Augusta”. The previous heads have been scraped off and replaced by the three present ones. Perhaps the earlier mosaic showed her first husband Romanus III Argyrus or her second husband Michael IV. 3.5.6 Emperor Alexander mosaic Another theory is that this mosaic were made for an earlier emperor and empress, with their heads changed into The Emperor Alexander mosaic is not easy to find for the the present ones.[77] first-time visitor, located in the second floor in a dark corner of the ceiling. It depicts Emperor Alexander in full regalia, holding a scroll in his right hand and a globus cru- 3.5.8 Comnenus mosaic ciger in his left. A drawing by Fossati showed that the mosaic survived until 1849, and that Thomas Whittemore, founder of the Byzantine Institute of America who was granted permission to preserve the mosaics, assumed that it had been destroyed in the earthquake of 1894. Eight years after his death, the mosaic was discovered in 1958 largely through the researches of Robert Van Nice. Unlike most of the other mosaics in Hagia Sophia, which had been covered over by ordinary plaster, the Alexander mosaic was simply painted over and reflected the surrounding mosaic patterns and thus was well hidden. It was duly cleaned by the Byzantine Institute’s successor to The Comnenus mosaic Whittemore, Paul A. Underwood.[75][76] 3.5.7

Empress Zoe mosaic

The Empress Zoe mosaic

The Comnenus mosaic, also located on the eastern wall of the southern gallery, dates from 1122. The Virgin Mary is standing in the middle, depicted, as usual in Byzantine art, in a dark blue gown. She holds the Child Christ on her lap. He gives His blessing with His right hand while holding a scroll in His left hand. On her right side stands emperor John II Comnenus, represented in a garb embellished with precious stones. He holds a purse, symbol of an imperial donation to the church. Empress Irene stands on the left side of the Virgin, wearing ceremonial garments and offering a document. Their eldest son Alexius Comnenus is represented on an adjacent pilaster. He is shown as a beardless youth, probably representing his appearance at his coronation aged seventeen. In this panel one can already see a difference with the Empress Zoe mosaic that is one century older. There is a more realistic expression in the portraits instead of an idealized representation. The empress is shown with plaited blond hair, rosy cheeks and grey eyes, revealing her Hungarian descent. The emperor is depicted in a dignified manner.[78]

11 3.5.9

Deësis mosaic

• Mosaic in the northern tympanon depicting Saint John Chrysostom • Drawing by the Fossati brother depicting some mosaics • Another drawing by the Fossati brothers depicting mosaic of six patriarchs in the southern tympanon • One of the mighty stone columns with metal clasps • Interior of the Hagia Sophia by John Singer Sargent, 1891 • Detail of relief on the Marble Door.

The Deësis mosaic

The Deësis mosaic (Δέησις, “Entreaty”) probably dates from 1261. It was commissioned to mark the end of 57 years of Roman Catholic use and the return to the Orthodox faith. It is the third panel situated in the imperial enclosure of the upper galleries. It is widely considered the finest in Hagia Sophia, because of the softness of the features, the humane expressions and the tones of the mosaic. The style is close to that of the Italian painters of the late 13th or early 14th century, such as Duccio. In this panel the Virgin Mary and John the Baptist (Ioannes Prodromos), both shown in three-quarters profile, are imploring the intercession of Christ Pantocrator for humanity on Judgment Day. The bottom part of this mosaic is badly deteriorated.[79] This mosaic is considered as the beginning of the Renaissance in Byzantine pictorial art.[80] 3.5.10

Northern tympanum mosaics

The northern tympanum mosaics feature various saints. They have been able to survive due to the very high and unreachable location. They depict Saints John Chrysostom and Ignatius the Younger standing, clothed in white robes with crosses, and holding richly jeweled Holy Bibles. The names of each saint is given around the statues in Greek, in order to enable an identification for the visitor. The other mosaics in the other tympana have not survived probably due to the frequent earthquakes as opposed to any deliberate destruction by the Ottoman conquerors.[81]

4

Other burials • Mustafa I, in the courtyard

5

Gallery

• Interior view of the Hagia Sophia, showing Islamic elements on the top of the main dome. • Haghia Sofia from Adriaan Reland (1676-1718): Verhandeling van de godsdienst der Mahometaanen, 1719 • Hagia Sophia during its time as a mosque. Illustration by Gaspare Fossati and Louis Haghe from 1852. • Interior panorama of the Hagia Sophia • Circa 1900 photograph, from its time as a mosque. • The face of the Hexapterygon (six-winged angel) on the north east pendentive (upper left), discovered but covered again by Gaspare Fossati during its restoration, is visible again. • Imperial Gate • 19th-century marker of the tomb of Enrico Dandolo, the Doge of Venice who commanded the Sack of Constantinople in 1204, inside the Hagia Sophia

6 See also • Oldest churches in the world • List of megalithic sites • Conversion of non-Muslim places of worship into mosques • Pendentive—Architectural element • List of Byzantine inventions • History of Roman and Byzantine domes Related buildings:

• Mosaics with geometric pattern decorate the upper imperial gallery

• Church of the Holy Apostles—the second most important church of Constantinople

• Detail of Deësis mosaic

• Hagia Irene—neighbouring church

12

7

• Little Hagia Sophia—a 6th-century Byzantine church, now mosque, that might have been built by the same architects as Hagia Sophia

[8] Binns, John (2002). An Introduction to the Christian Orthodox Churches. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 57. ISBN 0-521-66738-0.

• Chora Church—Byzantine church in Istanbul notable for its well preserved Paleologan mosaics, now a museum too

[9] .” LiveScience.

• Pammakaristos Church: its parekklesion—also a museum—is decorated with beautiful mosaics • Haseki Hürrem Sultan Hamamı—bath commissioned by Roxelana for the Hagia Sophia community • Caferağa Medresseh—former Koranic school next to Hagia Sophia • Soğukçeşme Sokağı—historical street between the Hagia Sophia and Topkapı Palace • Saint Sophia Cathedral in Kiev • Saint Sophia Cathedral in Novgorod • Saint Sophia Cathedral in Polotsk • Hagia Sophia Church (Sofia) • Basilica of the National Shrine of the Immaculate Conception • Franciscan Monastery (Washington, DC) • Saint Clement Catholic Church, Chicago—the designer was said to have been influenced by the Hagia Sophia • Ukrainian Catholic Archeparchy of Philadelphia— the article shows the cathedral, resembling the Hagia Sophia

7

REFERENCES

References

[1] Müller-Wiener (1977), p. 112. [2] Magdalino, Paul, et al. “Istanbul: Buildings, Hagia Sophia” in Grove Art Online. Oxford Art Online. http: //www.oxfordartonline.com. accessed 28 February 2010. [3] Fazio, Michael; Moffett, Marian; Wodehouse, Lawrence (2009). Buildings Across Time (3rd ed.). McGraw-Hill Higher Education. ISBN 978-0-07-305304-2. [4] Simons, Marlise (22 August 1993). “Center of Ottoman Power”. New York Times. Retrieved 4 June 2009. [5] Kleiner, Fred S.; Christin J. Mamiya (2008). Gardner’s Art Through the Ages: Volume I, Chapters 1–18 (12th ed.). Mason, OH: Wadsworth. p. 329. ISBN 0-495-46740-5.

[10] "Hagia Sophia.” ArchNet. [11] “Top 10: Turkey’s most visited museums”. Hürriyet Daily News. 10 November 2014. [12] Müller-Wiener (1977), p. 84. [13] Alessandro E. FONI, George PAPAGIANNAKIS, Nadia MAGNENAT-THALMANN. “Virtual Hagia Sophia: Restitution, Visualization and Virtual Life Simulation” (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 9 July 2007. Retrieved 3 July 2007. [14] Janin (1953), p. 472. [15] Krautheimer, Richard (1986). Early Christian and Byzantine Architecture (4th ed.). New Haven and London: Yale University Press/Pelican History of Art. p. 205. ISBN 0-300-05296-0. [16] Mango, Cyril (1985). Byzantine Architecture (1st ed.). New York: Electa/Rizzoli. p. 65. ISBN 0-8478-06154. [17] Müller-Wiener (1977), p. 86. [18] “The Chronicle of John Malalas,” Bk 18.86 Translated by E. Jeffreys, M. Jeffreys, and R. Scott. Australian Association of Byzantine Studies, 1986 vol 4. [19] “The Chronicle of Theophones Confessor: Byzantine and Near Eastern History AD 284-813.” Translated with commentary by Cyril Mango and Roger Scott. AM 6030 pg 316, with this note: Theophanes’ precise date should be accepted. [20] Janin, Raymond (1950). Constantinople Byzantine (in French) (1 ed.). Paris: Institut Français d'Etudes Byzantines. p. 41. [21] “Haghia Sophia”. Istanbul /: Emporis. Retrieved 4 December 2011. [22] “Baalbek keeps its secrets”. stoneworld. [23] “The Abbasid palace of Theophilus: Byzantine taste for the arts of”. Ingentaconnect.com. 1 March 2004. Retrieved 26 February 2013. [24] Brubaker (2011), p. 115 [25] Maranci, Christina (September 2003). “The Architect Trdat: Building Practices and Cross-Cultural Exchange in Byzantium and Armenia]". Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians 62 (3): 294–305. [26] Müller-Wiener (1977), p. 87.

[6] Janin (1953), p. 471.

[27] Mamboury (1953) p. 287

[7] McKenzie, Steven L. (1998). The Hebrew Bible Today: An Introduction to Critical Issues. M. Patrick Graham. Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox Press. p. 149. ISBN 0-664-25652-X.

[28] “Hagia Sophia”. Teslasociety.com. Retrieved 26 February 2013. [29] Müller-Wiener (1977), p. 91.

13

[30] Runciman, Steven (1965). The Fall of Constantinople, 1453. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 145. ISBN 0-521-39832-0.

[55] “Turkey: Pressure mounts for Hagia Sophia to be converted into mosque”. Christian Today. 13 December 2013. Retrieved 24 December 2013.

[31] Nicol, Donald M. The End of the Byzantine Empire. London: Edward Arnold Publishers, 1979, p. 88.

[56] “Pope’s remarks ‘to accelerate Hagia Sophia’s conversion into mosque’". Hurriyet. 16 April 2015.

[32] Nicol. The End of the Byzantine Empire, p. 90.

[34] Runciman. The Fall of Constantinople, pp. 133–134.

[57] Moftah, Lora (16 April 2015). “Hagia Sophia Mosque Conversion? Turkey Pope Backlash Could Open Historic Church To Muslim Worship”. International Business Times.

[35] Nicol, Donald M. The Last Centuries of Byzantium 1261– 1453. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1972, p. 389.

[58] Melton, J. Gordon; Baumann, Martin (21 September 2010). Religions of the World: A Comprehensive Encyclopedia of Beliefs and Practices. ABC-CLIO. p. 513.

[36] Runciman. The Fall of Constantinople, p. 149.

[59] Kleiner and Mamiya. Gardner’s Art Through the Ages, p. 331.

[33] Runciman. The Fall of Constantinople, p. 147.

[37] Tafur, Pero (1926). Travels and Adventures, 1435–1439. Trans. M. Letts. London: G. Routledge. pp. 138–148. [38] G. Gerola, “Le vedute di Costantinopoli di Cristoforo Buondemonti,” SBN 3 (1931): 247–79. [39] Mamboury (1953), p. 288.

[60] “pendentive (architecture) - Britannica Online Encyclopedia”. Britannica.com. Retrieved 4 December 2011. [61] Mainstone, Rowland J. (2001). Hagia Sophia. London: Thames & Hudson. pp. 90–93. ISBN 0-500-27945-4.

[40] Necipoĝlu (2005), pg. 13

[62] Hagia Sophia. “Mosque”. Hagia Sophia. Retrieved 26 February 2013.

[41] Boyar & Fleet (2010), p. 145

[63] Ronchey (2010), p. 157

[42] Mungan, I. (2004). Hagia Sophia and Mimar Sinan. Mungan & Wittek (eds); Taylor & Francis Group, London. pp. 383–384. ISBN 90-5809-642-4.

[64] “Ayasofya Müzesi”. Ayasofyamuzesi.gov.tr. Retrieved 3 November 2013.

[43] Müller-Wiener (1977), p. 93.

[65] “Aya Sofya or Hagia Sophia Mosque Church and Museum”. Very Turkey.

[44] Turkish Cultural Foundation. The Fossati brothers, Accessed 23 Sept 2014.

[66] “The Architectural Review, Vol. 17” pg. 153

[45] Grove Encyclopedia of Islamic Art & Architecture: Istanbul, Oxford University Press, p.324. [46] “World Monuments Fund – Hagia Sophia”. Wmf.org. Retrieved 4 December 2011.

[67] Hoffman (1999), p. 207 [68] “Monuments éternels”. Programmes ARTE. 21 September 2014. [69] The Hagia Sophia - by Mount Holyoke College

[47] "Ýstanbul Tanýtýmý - Ayasofya Müzesi”. Istanbul.gov.tr. Retrieved 4 December 2011.

[70] “The Hagia Sophia Church”. Guideistanbul.net. Retrieved 4 December 2011.

[48] İbadete açık Ayasofya (Turkish)

[71] Hagia Sophia. “Imperial Door Mosaic - Hagia Sophia”. hagiasophia.com.

[49] “Ayasofya'da ezan okunuyor, duydunuz mu?". Timeturk. Retrieved 16 July 2013. [50] “Group unveils initiative on Hagia Sophia”. HomeboyMediaNews. [51] Международная группа активистов продолжает возвращения Церкви константинопольского собора Святой Софии Православие.Ru 26 июля 2007. [52] Константинопольская София — мать всех церквей) Православие.Ru, 29 October 2007. [53] “Call to reinstate Hagia Sophia as mosque”. Financial Times. 15 November 2013. Retrieved 24 December 2013. [54] “Greece angered over Turkish Deputy PM’s Hagia Sophia remarks”. Hürriyet. 19 November 2013. Retrieved 20 November 2013.

[72] Lorenzo Riccardi, Observations on Basil II as Patron of the Arts, in Actual Problems of Theory and History of Art, I, Collection of articles. Materials of the Conference of Young Specialists (St. Petersburg State University, 1–5 December 2010), St. Petersburg 2011 (ISBN 978-5-288-05174-6), pp. 39-45; Lorenzo Riccardi, Alcune riflessioni sul mosaico del vestibolo sud-ovest della Santa Sofia di Costantinopoli, in Vie per Bisanzio. VIII Congresso Nazionale dell’Associazione Italiana di Studi Bizantini (Venezia 25-28 novembre 2009), a cura di Antonio Rigo, Andrea Babuin e Michele Trizio, Bari, Edizioni di Pagina 2012 (ISBN 978-88-7470-229-9), pp. 357-371. [73] Hagia Sophia. “Southwestern Vestibule - Hagia Sophia”. hagiasophia.com. [74] Hagia Sophia. “Apse Mosaic - Hagia Sophia”. hagiasophia.com.

14

9 FURTHER READING

[75] Lord Kinross. “Hagia Sophia: A History of Constantinople.” Newsweek, 1972, pp. 132–133. [76] Hagia Sophia. “Emperor Alexander - Hagia Sophia”. hagiasophia.com. [77] Hagia Sophia. “Empress Zoe - Hagia Sophia”. hagiasophia.com. [78] Hagia Sophia. sophia.com.

“Comnenus - Hagia Sophia”.

hagia-

• Ronchey, Silvia; Braccini, Tommaso (2010). Il romanzo di Costantinopoli. Guida letteraria alla Roma d'Oriente (in Italian). Torino: Einaudi. ISBN 97888-06-18921-1. • Runciman, Steven (1965). The Fall of Constantinople, 1453. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 145. ISBN 0-521-39832-0. • Turner, J. (1996). Grove Dictionary of Art. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-517068-7.

[79] Parry, K., The Blackwell Companion to Eastern Christianity, John Wiley & Sons, 2010. p. 379. [80] Hagia Sophia. “Deesis - Hagia Sophia”. hagiasophia.com. [81] Hagia Sophia. “North Tympanum - Hagia Sophia”. hagiasophia.com.

8

Bibliography

9 Further reading • Alchermes, Joseph D. (2005). “Art and Architecture in the Age of Justinian”. In Maas, Michael. The Cambridge Companion to the Age of Justinian. Cambridge: Cambridge U.P. pp. 343–375. ISBN 978-0-521-52071-3.

• Boyran, Ebru; Fleet, Kate (2010). A social History of Ottoman Istanbul. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-19955-1.

• Balfour, John Patrick Douglas (1972). Hagia Sophia. W.W. Norton & Company. ISBN 978-088225-014-4.

• Brubaker, Leslie; Haldon, John (2011). Byzantium in the Iconoclast era (ca 680–850). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0521-43093-7.

• Cimok, Fatih (2004). Hagia Sophia. Milet Publishing Ltd. ISBN 978-975-7199-61-8.

• Hagia Sophia Church , also known as Church of Holy Wisdom. • Hagia Sophia. . Accessed 23 Sept 2014. • Hoffman, Volker (1999). Die Hagia Sophia in Istanbul (in German). Bern: Lang. ISBN 3-906762-815. • Janin, Raymond (1953). La Géographie Ecclésiastique de l'Empire Byzantin. 1. Part: Le Siège de Constantinople et le Patriarcat Oecuménique. 3rd Vol. : Les Églises et les Monastères. Paris: Institut Français d'Etudes Byzantines. • Mainstone, Rowland J. (1997). Hagia Sophia: Architecture, Structure, and Liturgy of Justinian’s Great Church (reprint edition). W W Norton & Co Inc. ISBN 0-500-27945-4.. • Mamboury, Ernest (1953). The Tourists’ Istanbul. Istanbul: Çituri Biraderler Basımevi. • Müller-Wiener, Wolfgang (1977). Bildlexikon zur Topographie Istanbuls: Byzantion, Konstantinupolis, Istanbul bis zum Beginn d. 17 Jh (in German). Tübingen: Wasmuth. ISBN 978-3-8030-1022-3. • Necipoĝlu, Gulru (2005). The Age of Sinan: Architectural Culture in the Ottoman Empire. London: Reaktion Books. ISBN 978-1-86189-244-7.

• Doumato, Lamia (1980). The Byzantine church of Hagia Sophia: Selected references. Vance Bibliographies. ASIN B0006E2O2M. • Goriansky, Lev Vladimir (1933). Haghia Sophia: analysis of the architecture, art and spirit behind the shrine in Constantinople dedicated to Hagia Sophia. American School of Philosophy. ASIN B0008C47EA. • Harris, Jonathan, Constantinople: Capital of Byzantium. Hambledon/Continuum (2007). ISBN 978-184725-179-4 • Howland Swift, Emerson (1937). The bronze doors of the gate of the horologium at Hagia Sophia. University of Chicago. ASIN B000889GIG. • Kahler, Heinz (1967). Haghia Sophia. Praeger. ASIN B0008C47EA. • Kinross, Lord (1972). Hagia Sophia, Wonders of Man. Newsweek. ASIN B000K5QN9W. • Kleinbauer, W. Eugene; Anthony White (2007). Hagia Sophia. London: Scala Publishers. ISBN 978-1-85759-308-2. • Kleinbauer, W. Eugene (2000). Saint Sophia at Constantinople: Singulariter in Mundo (Monograph (Frederic Lindley Morgan Chair of Architectural Design), No. 5.). William L. Bauhan. ISBN 978-087233-123-5.

15 • Krautheimer, Richard (1984). Early Christian and Byzantine Architecture. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-05294-7.

• MacDonald, William Lloyd (1951). The uncovering of Byzantine mosaics in Hagia Sophia. Archaeological Institute of America. ASIN B0007GZTKS.

• Mainstone, R. J. (1997). Hagia Sophia: Architecture, Structure, and Liturgy of Justinian’s Great Church. London: Thames & Hudson. ISBN 9780-500-27945-8.

• Mango, Cyril (1972). The mosaics of St. Sophia at Istanbul: The church fathers in the north Tympanum. Dumbarton Oaks Center for Byzantine Studies. ASIN B0007CAVA0.

• Mainstone, Rowland J. (1988). Hagia Sophia. Architecture, structure and liturgy of Justinian’s great church. London: Thames & Hudson. ISBN 0-50034098-6.

• Mango, Cyril (1968). The Apse mosaics of St. Sophia at Istanbul: Report on work carried out in 1964. Johnson Reprints. ASIN B0007G5RBY.

• Mango, Cyril; Ahmed Ertuğ (1997). Hagia Sophia. A vision for empires. Istanbul. • Mark, R.; Çakmaktitle, AS. (1992). Hagia Sophia from the Age of Justinian to the Present. Princeton Architectural. ISBN 978-1-878271-11-2. • Nelson, Robert S. (2004). Hagia Sophia, 1850– 1950: Holy Wisdom Modern Monument. Chicago: University Of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-22657171-3. • Özkul, T. A. (2007). Structural characteristics of Hagia Sophia: I-A finite element formulation for static analysis. Elsevier. • Scharf, Joachim:Der Kaiser in Proskynese. Bemerkungen zur Deutung des Kaisermosaiks im Narthex der Hagia Sophia von Konstantinopel. In: Festschrift Percy Ernst Schramm zu seinem siebzigsten Geburtstag von Schülern und Freunden zugeeignet, Wiesbaden 1964, S. 27–35. • Swainson, Harold (2005). The Church of Sancta Sophia Constantinople: A Study of Byzantine Building. Boston, MA: Adamant Media Corporation. ISBN 978-1-4021-8345-4. • Yucel, Erdem (2005). Hagia Sophia. Scala Publishers. ISBN 978-1-85759-250-4. • Weitzmann, Kurt, ed., Age of spirituality: late antique and early Christian art, third to seventh century, no. 592, 1979, Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, ISBN 978-0-87099-179-0

9.1

Articles

• Bordewich, Fergus M., “A Monumental Struggle to Preserve Hagia Sophia”, Smithsonian magazine, December 2008

9.2

Mosaics

• Hagia Sophia, hagiasophia.com: Mosaics.

• Mango, Cyril; Heinz Kahler (1967). Hagia Sophia: With a Chapter on the Mosaics. Praeger. ASIN B0000CO5IL. • Teteriatnikov, Natalia B. (1998). Mosaics of Hagia Sophia, Istanbul: The Fossati Restoration and the Work of the Byzantine Institute. Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection. ISBN 9780-88402-264-0. • Riccardi, Lorenzo (2012). Alcune riflessioni sul mosaico del vestibolo sud-ovest della Santa Sofia di Costantinopoli, in Vie per Bisanzio. VIII Congresso Nazionale dell’Associazione Italiana di Studi Bizantini (Venezia 25-28 novembre 2009), a cura di Antonio Rigo, Andrea Babuin e Michele Trizio. Bari. pp. 357–371. ISBN 978-88-7470-229-9. Retrieved 30 September 2014. • Yücel, Erdem (1988). The mosaics of Hagia Sophia. Efe Turizm. ASIN B0007CBGYA.

10 External links • Hagia Sophia Museum • Contemporary description by Procopius, Buildings (De Aedificiis), published in 561. • Aya Sofya Photo Gallery by Dick Osseman

16

11

11 11.1

TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses Text

• Hagia Sophia Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hagia_Sophia?oldid=702861730 Contributors: MichaelTinkler, Wesley, LA2, Vignaux, Panairjdde~enwiki, Hotlorp, Hephaestos, Olivier, Leandrod, Michael Hardy, Tim Starling, DopefishJustin, Gabbe, Ixfd64, Delirium, Egil, DavidWBrooks, Anders Feder, Snoyes, CatherineMunro, Andres, Alex756, GCarty, Raven in Orbit, JASpencer, Seth ze, RodC, Adam Bishop, Dysprosia, Tpbradbury, Tempshill, Dogface, Shizhao, Topbanana, Warofdreams, Wetman, Adam Carr, PuzzletChung, Dimadick, Twice25, Gentgeen, Robbot, Paranoid, The Phoenix, ChrisO~enwiki, Mirv, Rorro, Sevenstones, Radomil, Tanuki Z, Hadal, Profoss, Kent Wang, Aggelophoros, Guy Peters, Oobopshark, Davidcannon, Ancheta Wis, JamesMLane, DocWatson42, Levork, Tom harrison, Meursault2004, Lupin, Zigger, Michael Devore, Syed Atif Nazir, Alibaba, Dsmdgold, Gilgamesh~enwiki, BigBen212, Fak119, Stevietheman, Popefauvexxiii, Gdr, Antandrus, JoJan, Jossi, OwenBlacker, Kuralyov, Huaiwei, Neutrality, 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Images

• File:38-manasses-chronicle.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/73/38-manasses-chronicle.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Scanned from book “Miniatures from the Manasses Chronicle”, Ivan Duichev, “Bulgarski hudojnik” Publishing house, Sofia, 1962 Original artist: Original: Constantine Manasses • File:Allah-green.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4e/Allah-green.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Converted to SVG from Image:Islam.png, originally from en:Image:Ift32.gif, uploaded to the English Wikipedia by Mr100percent on 4 February 2003. Originally described as “Copied from Public Domain artwork”. Original artist: ? • File:Apse_mosaic_Hagia_Sophia_Virgin_and_Child.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ad/Apse_ mosaic_Hagia_Sophia_Virgin_and_Child.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Photograph: Myrabella • File:Ceiling_decorations_in_Hagia_Sofia.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7e/Ceiling_decorations_ in_Hagia_Sofia.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.0 Contributors: Flickr: Ceiling decorations in the Church of Hagia Sofia Original artist: Ian Scott • File:Commons-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Comnenus_mosaics_Hagia_Sophia.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f3/Comnenus_mosaics_ Hagia_Sophia.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Photographer: Myrabella • File:Deesis_mosaic_Hagia_Sophia.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7e/Deesis_mosaic_Hagia_Sophia. jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Photograph: Myrabella • File:Empress_Zoe_mosaic_Hagia_Sophia.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7f/Empress_Zoe_mosaic_ Hagia_Sophia.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Photographer: Myrabella • File:Empress_loge_Hagia_Sophia_2007_002.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Empress_loge_ Hagia_Sophia_2007_002.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Gryffindor • File:Flag_of_Palaeologus_Dynasty.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f6/Flag_of_Palaeologus_Dynasty. svg License: Public domain Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia to Commons. Original artist: Dragases at English Wikipedia • File:Flag_of_Turkey.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b4/Flag_of_Turkey.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Turkish Flag Law (Türk Bayrağı Kanunu), Law nr. 2893 of 22 September 1983. Text (in Turkish) at the website of the Turkish Historical Society (Türk Tarih Kurumu) Original artist: David Benbennick (original author) • File:Flag_of_the_Ottoman_Empire.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/35/Flag_of_the_Ottoman_ Empire.svg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.vicmart.com/ext/en/exrw/item=1416 - Ottoman medal from 1850 Original artist: DsMurattalk • File:Fountain_Hagia_Sophia_2007_002.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e1/Fountain_Hagia_Sophia_ 2007_002.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Gryffindor • File:Haga_Sofia_RB5.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e2/Haga_Sofia_RB5.jpg License: CC-BY-SA3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Hagia-Sophia-Grundriss.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b7/Hagia-Sophia-Grundriss.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Hagia-Sophia-Laengsschnitt.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/45/Hagia-Sophia-Laengsschnitt. jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Wilhelm Lübke / Max Semrau: Grundriß der Kunstgeschichte. 14. Auflage. Paul Neff Verlag, Esslingen, 1908; German Wikipedia, original upload 28. Aug 2004 by Rainer Zenz Original artist: ? • File:Hagia_Sophia_Imperial_Gate_mosaic_2.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/dd/Hagia_Sophia_ Imperial_Gate_mosaic_2.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: This file was derived from Hagia Sophia Imperial Gate mosaic.jpg: Original artist: Hagia_Sophia_Imperial_Gate_mosaic.jpg: Photograph: Myrabella • File:Hagia_Sophia_Interior_Dome.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e2/Hagia_Sophia_Interior_ Dome.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Own work (Original text: self-made) Original artist: Matthew Badger bad_germ

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TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

• File:Hagia_Sophia_Southwestern_entrance_mosaics_2.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e9/Hagia_ Sophia_Southwestern_entrance_mosaics_2.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: This file was derived from Hagia Sophia Southwestern entrance mosaics.jpg: Original artist: File:Hagia_Sophia_Southwestern_entrance_mosaics.jpg: Photograph: Myrabella • File:Hagia_Sophia_Theodosius_2007_002.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/da/Hagia_Sophia_ Theodosius_2007_002.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Gryffindor • File:Hagia_Sophia_Theodosius_2007_007.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a1/Hagia_Sophia_ Theodosius_2007_007.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Gryffindor • File:Hagia_Sophia_Theodosius_2007_010.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/54/Hagia_Sophia_ Theodosius_2007_010.JPG License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Gryffindor • File:Istanbul.Hagia_Sophia005.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/ff/Istanbul.Hagia_Sophia005.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Own work (own photo) Original artist: Georges Jansoone JoJan • File:Istanbul.Hagia_Sophia009.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/52/Istanbul.Hagia_Sophia009.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Own work (own photo) Original artist: Georges Jansoone JoJan • File:Istanbul.Hagia_Sophia052.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/76/Istanbul.Hagia_Sophia052.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Own work (own photo) Original artist: Georges Jansoone JoJan • File:Istanbul.Hagia_Sophia055.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f2/Istanbul.Hagia_Sophia055.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Own work (own photo) Original artist: Georges Jansoone JoJan • File:Istanbul_001.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/99/Istanbul_001.JPG License: CC BY-SA 4.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Vikiçizer • File:Istanbul_036_(6498284165).jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/de/Istanbul_036_%286498284165% 29.jpg License: CC BY 2.0 Contributors: Istanbul 036 Original artist: Steve Evans from Citizen of the World • File:Le_24feb_a_11h23_-_Ste_Sophie_(1280x1280).jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/50/Le_24feb_ a_11h23_-_Ste_Sophie_%281280x1280%29.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Tranxen • File:Location_map_Istanbul.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/38/Location_map_Istanbul.png License: CC BY-SA 2.0 Contributors: openstreetmap.org Original artist: OpenStreetMap contributors, Dr. Blofeld • File:Marble_door_Hagia_Sophia_2007_003.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/40/Marble_door_ Hagia_Sophia_2007_003.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Gryffindor • File:Marble_jar_Hagia_Sophia_2007_001.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e8/Marble_jar_Hagia_ Sophia_2007_001.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Gryffindor • File:P_parthenon.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f4/P_parthenon.svg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Red_pog.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/0/0c/Red_pog.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Searchtool.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/6/61/Searchtool.svg License: ? Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:USVA_headstone_emb-05.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ea/USVA_headstone_emb-05.svg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.cem.va.gov/hmm/emblems.asp Original artist: Traced by User:Dogsgomoo, VA original • File:Wikisource-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Rei-artur Original artist: Nicholas Moreau

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