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By Ben Givan M o s t a n a l y t i c a l l i t e r a t u r e o n j a z z still places a p r e m i u m o n s t r u c t u r a l unity. E a r l y writers, s u c h as A n d r e H o d e i r (1956) a n d G u n t h e r S c h u l l e r ( 1 9 5 8 ) , s o u g h t to l e g i t i m i z e t h e m u s i c i n the eves o f the m u s i c o l o g i c a l c o m m u n i t y by d e m o n s t r a t i n g its accessibility to t r a d i t i o n a l f o r m a l i s t interp r e t a t i o n . T h i s m e t h o d o l o g i c a l o r i e n t a t i o n persists i n m u c h c u r r e n t j a z z analysis (e.g., B l o c k 1990; M a r t i n 1996; L a r s o n 1998; M a r k e r 1999). I n rec e n t years, h o w e v e r , t h e f o r m a l i s t view o f j a z z i m p r o v i s a t i o n s as a u t o n o m o u s artifacts, whose aesthetic value stems f r o m t h e i r i n t e r n a l c o h e r e n c e , has b e e n c h a l l e n g e d o n the g r o u n d s that it r e m a i n s as inseparablytied to a n i n a p p o s i t e , E u r o p e a n i d e o l o g i c a l heritage as the conservatism it o p p o s e s . E t h n o m u s i c o l o g i s t s a n d " n e w " m u s i c o l o g i s t s have i n s t e a d pref e r r e d to divert t h e i r a t t e n t i o n t o w a r d jazz's i m m e d i a t e social c o n t e x t — p r i m a r i l y the v e r n a c u l a r c u l t u r e o f b l a c k A m e r i c a — a n d its h i s t o r i c roots i n sub-Saharan A f r i c a ( T o m l i n s o n 1992; W a l s e r 1995; F l o y d 1995). T h i s m o r e h u m a n i s t i c p e r s p e c t i v e has served to d i s p e l f o r m a l i s m ' s c l a i m s to objectivity. A c o m p r o m i s e c a n be f o u n d between these o p p o s i n g s t a n d p o i n t s by reg a r d i n g m u s i c a l structure a n d social c o n t e x t as i n e x t r i c a b l y i n t e r d e p e n d ent ( M o n s o n 1996:186, 190). B u t a f u r t h e r possibility that has yet to be c o n s i d e r e d seriously is that j a z z m i g h t b e subjected to close analysis w i t h o u t n e c e s s a r i l y i n v o k i n g t h e o r g a n i c i s t c o r o l l a r y that t h e m u s i c i t s e l f o u g h t , at s o m e level, to e x h i b i t a u n i f i e d structure. I n d e e d , as this p a p e r w i l l show, an e x a m i n a t i o n o f manifestations of" d i s c o n t i n u i t y , r a t h e r than o f unity, may o f f e r insight i n t o the creative processes u n d e r l y i n g i m p r o vised p e r f o r m a n c e . T h e i m p r o v i s a t i o n s o f guitarist D j a n g o R e i n h a r d t ( 1 9 1 0 - 1 9 5 3 ) p r o v i d e a fitting case-study, because they o f t e n e x h i b i t s t r i k i n g d i s c o n t i n u i t i e s . T h e critic W h i t n e y B a l l i e t t recently d e s c r i b e d R e i n h a r d t ' s characteristic m o d u s o p e r a n d i as follows: R e i n h a r d t m i g h t start a m e d i u m - t e m p o b a l l a d w i t h t h r e e o r f o u r bars o f s l i g h t l y a l t e r e d m e l o d y , p l a y e d i n s i n g l e notes b e h i n d t h e beat, each phrase g r a c e d by his v i b r a t o (almost a t r e m b l e ) , pause f o r a beat, a n d g o i n t o a b r i e f m o c k d o u b l e - t i m e , rest a g a i n , d r o p i n a n a b r u p t , massive c h o r d , a n d release a h i s s i n g u p w a r d r u n . T h e n h e ' d cut his v o l u m e i n h a l f a n d t u r n i n t o the b r i d g e w i t h a delicate, fernl i k e single-note v a r i a t i o n o f the m e l o d y , l e t t i n g h i s notes l i n g e r a n d

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b e n d a n d float o n his vibrato. Just before the e n d of the b r i d g e , he w o u l d loose a n o t h e r offbeat c h o r d , let it s h i m m e r f o r three o r four beats, w o r k t h r o u g h a h u m p l i k e a r p e g g i o , l o w e r his v o l u m e again, a n d r e t u r n to a s i n g l e - n o t e v a r i a t i o n of t h e o r i g i n a l m e l o d y a n d c o m e to rest. (Balliett 2000a:99) It is this c a p r i c i o u s quality o f the guitarist's music, vividly c a p t u r e d here by Balliett, that makes it resistant to c o h e r e n c e - s e e k i n g f o r m a l i s t readings. I n c o n f r o n t i n g this s e e m i n g l y elusive b o d y o f w o r k , a u s e f u l starting p o i n t is a n insight o r i g i n a l l y suggested by H o d e i r . In 1962, H o d e i r p u b l i s h e d a s h o r t analysis o f R e i n h a r d t ' s solo o n the blues " S o l i d O l d M a n , " a 1939 r e c o r d i n g that also f e a t u r e d R e x Stewart, B a r n e y B i g a r d , and Billy T a y l o r o f the D u k e E l l i n g t o n O r c h e s t r a . H o d e i r ' s t r a n s c r i p t i o n is reprod u c e d i n e x a m p l e 1. T h e solo lasts f o r o n l v a single twelve-measure chorus, a n d H o d e i r ' s c o m m e n t a r y c o n c l u d e s with the f o l l o w i n g insight: [ T ] h e c u r i o u s c o n s t r u c t i o n o f this blues involves three phrases, d i v i d e d as follows: [measures] 1-3, 4 - 7 , 1 0 - 1 2 . W h a t h a p p e n s between the first beat o f the seventh measure a n d the first beat o f the tenth? D o e s D j a n g o stop playing? N o t at a l l ; these three measures c o n t a i n a fairly l o n g phrase, w h i c h does not belong to the solo proper. It is part of a n o r c h e s t r a l " a c c o m p a n i m e n t " w h i c h D j a n g o " h e a r d i n his h e a d " w h i l e p l a y i n g his i m p r o v i s a t i o n . T h e " p a r e n t h e t i c a l " character of this p h r a s e s h o u l d be a p p a r e n t to every a t t e n t i v e l i s t e n e r . ( H o d e i r 1962:188; e m p h a s i s i n the o r i g i n a l ) H o d e i r draws a t t e n t i o n to a p h e n o m e n o n that r e c u r s i n m a n y o f R e i n h a r d t ' s o t h e r r e c o r d e d i m p r o v i s a t i o n s . F o r instance, a n excerpt f r o m R e i n h a r d t ' s 1946 solo o n " L o v e ' s M e l o d y " (ex. 2) c o n t a i n s a similarly "pare n t h e t i c a l " passage ( m . 7) that, like the phrase d e s c r i b e d i n the q u o t a t i o n above, is suggestive of a n a c c o m p a n i m e n i a l t e x t u r e d u e to its r e d u c e d v o l u m e a n d repetitive character. T h e present article draws some further observations bv e x t r a p o l a t i n g f r o m H o d e i r ' s f o u r - d e c a d e - o l d remarks. T o b e g i n , c o n s i d e r H o d e i r ' s view that the " o d d p h r a s e o u t " i n R e i n h a r d t ' s solo conveys the sense o f b e i n g a n accompaniment that is subordinate to the s u r r o u n d i n g m u s i c a l m a t e r i a l , a n d that it f u r t h e r m o r e represents the c o n c r e t i z a t i o n o f a m u s i c a l i m a g e that he heard in his head. T h e latter c l a i m is c o r r o b o r a t e d by the testimony o f m a n v i m p r o v i s i n g musicians. Jazz p e r f o r m e r s o f t e n describe t h e i r creative processes i n terms o f the a c t u a l i z a t i o n o f m u s i c a l ideas that are first i m a g i n e d i n t e r n a l l y ; i n s o m e cases they c l a i m c o n s c i o u s l y to " t h i n k a h e a d , " usually by n o m o r e t h a n a bar o r two. 1

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B u t t h e i m p r o v i s e r ' s m i n d is n o t e x c l u s i v e l y o c c u p i e d by images of events that w i l l subsequently be r e a l i z e d as s o u n d . A p e r f o r m e r of m o s t m a i n s t r e a m j a z z styles is usually g u i d e d by a p r e e x i s t e n t t h e m e . B y p r e s c r i b i n g a fixed t e m p o r a l - h a r m o n i c s t r u c t u r e ( a n d i n m a n y instances a m e l o d y , t o o ) , the t h e m e dictates a set o f creative constraints. T h u s j a z z i m provisers m u s t k e e p these constraints i n m i n d . M a n y say that they r e t a i n an i n n e r i m a g e o f the h a r m o n i e s ( " c h o r d changes") w h i l e they play, a n d some use the m e l o d y itself as a c o n t i n u a l object o f r e f e r e n c e . O n e o f this article's basic p r e m i s e s is that d i s c o n t i n u i t i e s w i t h i n a g i v e n i m p r o v i s e d solo m a y result f r o m a p e r f o r m e r ' s attentive shifts between d i f f e r e n t c o n c e p t u a l fields. T h i s p r e m i s e also u n d e r l i e s t h e w e l l - k n o w n d i s t i n c t i o n p o s i t e d by H o d e i r h i m s e l f , whereby " p a r a p h r a s e i m p r o v i s a t i o n , " w h i c h is e x p l i c i t l y based o n a p r e - e x i s t i n g m e l o d y , is d i s t i n g u i s h e d f r o m " c h o r u s phrase i m p r o v i s a t i o n , " w h i c h observes o n l y a n established h a r m o n i c structure ( H o d e i r 1 9 5 6 : 1 4 4 ) . A s L a w r e n c e G u s h e e has n o t e d , o n e o f the deepest f o u n d a t i o n a l a s s u m p t i o n s o f H o d e i r ' s analytical f r a m e w o r k is that the i m p r o v i s a t i o n a l process is based o n " s e p a r a b l e levels o f m e n t a l activity" ( 1 9 8 1 : 1 5 8 ) . O t h e r authors have b o t h r e f i n e d ( K e r n f e l d 1 9 8 1 : 1 7 ; 1 9 9 5 : 1 3 1 ; Martin 1 9 9 6 : 3 4 ) a n d questioned (Larson 1 9 9 9 : 2 8 6 ) Hodeir's dichotomy; however, this p a p e r does n o t directly a d o p t o r adapt h i s s c h e m e . Instead, it p r o c e e d s f r o m the same basic s u p p o s i t i o n that c o n t r a s t i n g regions o f a m u s i c a l i m p r o v i s a t i o n m a y derive f r o m separate e l e m e n t s o f the i m p r o viser's c o n c e p t u a l m o d e l , b u t ultimately derives some a d d i t i o n a l hypotheses that are specifically g e a r e d toward R e i n h a r d t ' s m u s i c . 2

D i s c o n t i n u i t y b e t w e e n t e m p o r a l l y p r o x i m a t e m u s i c a l events leads H o d e i r to c l a i m that o n e phrase i n R e i n h a r d t ' s p e r f o r m a n c e o f " S o l i d O l d M a n " "does n o t b e l o n g to the solo p r o p e r . " T h e t e c h n i q u e o f j u x t a p o s i n g c o n t r a s t i n g m a t e r i a l has n u m e r o u s p r e c e d e n t s i n v a r i o u s m u s i c a l cultures, a n d it is o f t e n associated w i t h effects s u c h as a n t i p h o n y , o r n a m e n t a l interp o l a t i o n , a n d the i l l u s i o n o f s i m u l t a n e o u s p r o g r e s s i o n . D i f f e r e n t i a t i o n i n the d o m a i n o f any given m u s i c a l p a r a m e t e r c a n p r o d u c e these effects, b u t they are most readily a c h i e v e d by the e x p l o i t a t i o n o f t i m b r a l a n d spatial contrasts between two o r m o r e d i f f e r e n t i n s t r u m e n t s , o r g r o u p s o f i n s t r u m e n t s . F a m i l i a r e x a m p l e s o f s u c h p r a c t i c e s i n c l u d e the rori spezzati o f Renaissance V e n i c e , the call-and-response r o u t i n e s o f W e s t A f r i c a n a n d African-diasporic musical traditions, a n d the discontinuities i n certain w o r k s o f I g o r S t r a v i n s k y . H o w e v e r , t h e effect that H o d e i r i d e n t i f i e s i n R e i n h a r d t ' s blues c h o r u s — c o n v e y e d by j u s t o n e p e r f o r m e r , p l a y i n g a single m u s i c a l i n s t r u m e n t — i s also c o m m o n . G u n t h e r S c h u l l e r has d r a w n a n analogy b e t w e e n p i a n i s t E a r l H i n e s ' s use o f d y n a m i c s a n d m u s i c a l texture "to d i s t i n g u i s h b e t w e e n p r i m a r y a n d s e c o n d a r y m a t e r i a l " ( 1 9 8 9 : 2 8 0 ) a n d the i n t e r p o l a t i v e effects f o u n d i n various p i a n o works by C h o p i n a n d L i s z t . 3

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A n d P a u l B e r l i n e r observes that h o r n players s o m e t i m e s give the i m p r e s s i o n of p l a y i n g c a l l - a n d - r e s p o n s e f i g u r e s " w i t h t h e m s e l v e s " ( 1 9 9 4 : 1 9 5 ) . C h a r l e s H a r t m a n even c o m p a r e s c e r t a i n o f B o b b y M c F e r r i n ' s a c a p p e l l a v o c a l i m p r o v i s a t i o n s with the style bri.se of]. S. B a c h ' s works f o r u n a c c o m p a n i e d v i o l i n o r c e l l o ( 1 9 9 1 : 1 1 1 ) ; b o t h use registral contrast to create the i m p r e s s i o n of s i m u l t a n e o u s l y u n f o l d i n g c o n t r a p u n t a l l i n e s . I n m a n y i n stances, s u c h t e c h n i q u e s o f a b r u p t d i s c o n t i n u i t y c a n be classified a c c o r d i n g to m o r e t h a n o n e o f the t h r e e categories n o t e d above. T h u s , w h i l e E d w a r d T . C o n e i n t e r p r e t s t h e " s t r a t i f i c a t i o n " of m u s i c a l ideas i n Stravinsky's Symphonies of Wind Instruments i n terms o f the r e s u l t i n g i l l u s i o n o f s i m u l t a n e o u s p r o g r e s s i o n that h e calls " i n t e r l o c k " ( 1 9 8 9 : 2 9 4 ) , R i c h a r d T a r u s k i n c o m p a r e s the same w o r k to a r e s p o n s o r i a l Russian O r t h o d o x rel i g i o u s service ( 1 9 9 6 : 1 4 8 8 ) . B u t to date, the w o r k o f C o n e a n d others d e a l i n g w i t h d i s c o n t i n u i t y i n Western art m u s i c has n o p a r a l l e l i n the literature on jazz. T h e present article makes R e i n h a r d t ' s various uses o f m u s i c a l d i s c o n t i n u i t y t h e basis of a s p e c u l a t i v e p o e t i c s o f h i s i m p r o v i s a t i o n a l p r o c e s s . D i s c o n t i n u i t y w i l l be d e f i n e d very g e n e r a l l y as d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n i n the d o m a i n o f o n e o r m o r e m u s i c a l parameters b e t w e e n t e m p o r a l l y p r o x i m a t e events. R e i n h a r d t usually creates d i s c o n t i n u i t i e s by means o f c h a n g e s i n t e x t u r e — s u c h as a l t e r n a t i o n s between c h o r d a l a n d single-note p l a y i n g — o r t h r o u g h shifts i n register o r m o t i v i c c o n t e n t . T h e s e t e c h n i q u e s m o s t often suggest o r n a m e n t a l i n t e r p o l a t i o n o r the i l l u s i o n o f s i m u l t a n e o u s p r o gression. T h e f o l l o w i n g selected examples w i l l illustrate that d i s c o n t i n u i t i e s are consistently u s e d to r e i n f o r c e c o n c e p t u a l d i s t i n c t i o n s . 4

E x a m p l e 3 displays an excerpt f r o m R e i n h a r d t ' s 1 9 3 7 r e c o r d i n g o f W . C . H a n d y ' s "St. L o u i s B l u e s " (the o r i g i n a l m e l o d y appears above R e i n hardt's r e n d i t i o n ) . W h e n h e arrives at the theme's m i n o r - m o d e " h a b a n e r a " s e c t i o n m i d w a y t h r o u g h his solo, R e i n h a r d t chooses to play the o r i g i n a l m e l o d y , w i t h a few e m b e l l i s h m e n t s . B u t between e a c h o f its phrases h e i n terpolates a f l a m b o y a n t d o u b l e - t i m e passage. T h e f a m i l i a r m e l o d y a n d the u n f a m i l i a r a c c o m p a n i m e n t are d i f f e r e n t i a t e d by register, s p e e d o f m e l o d i c m o t i o n , a n d also t i m b r e , since the m e l o d y is p l a y e d o n the g u i tar's l o w e r strings. T w o c o n t r a s t i n g m u s i c a l ideas alternate, c r e a t i n g the i l lusion of one instrument playing a melody (bracketed i n example 3 ) while a n o t h e r plays a n o b b l i g a t o . T h i s e x a m p l e is, h o w e v e r , a n e x c e p t i o n a l case. M o r e f r e q u e n t l y R e i n h a r d t , l i k e m a n y soloists o f the s w i n g e r a , temp o r a r i l y reverts to the o r i g i n a l m e l o d y f o r j u s t a single phrase o r two d u r i n g the course o f a n e x t e n d e d i m p r o v i s a t i o n . E x a m p l e 4 , a n e x c e r p t f r o m the t o p o f his s e c o n d c h o r u s o n J a m e s P . J o h n s o n ' s " C h a r l e s t o n " ( 1 9 3 7 ) , indicates that, at the b e g i n n i n g o f the c h o r u s ' s s e c o n d eight-bar section 5

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( m m . 9 - 1 2 ) , h e i n t e r r u p t s his single-string solo by i n t e r j e c t i n g a ( r h y t h m i cally altered) p a r a p h r a s e o f the o r i g i n a l m e l o d y whose distinct c o n c e p t u a l o r i g i n is h i g h l i g h t e d t h r o u g h b e i n g p l a y e d i n octaves, c r e a t i n g a s h a r p discontinuity. T h u s m e l o d i c p a r a p h r a s e c a n be i d e n t i f i e d as a c o n s i s t e n t s o u r c e o f d i s c o n t i n u i t y i n R e i n h a r d t ' s i m p r o v i s a t i o n s . T h i s t e c h n i q u e m a y serve as a cognitive a n c h o r that r e m i n d s b o t h listeners, a n d p e r h a p s , i n a c o n f i r m a tory sense, the p e r f o r m e r also, o f the o n g o i n g i m p r o v i s a t i o n ' s u n d e r l y i n g t h e m a t i c d e r i v a t i o n . It s h o u l d be n o t e d that, i n R e i n h a r d t ' s solos, p a r a phrases o f the o r i g i n a l m e l o d y are o f t e n n o t so u n e q u i v o c a l l y set o f f f r o m t h e i r s u r r o u n d i n g s . I n s t e a d , they o f t e n a p p e a r as s u b t l e r r e f e r e n c e s i n w h i c h c o n c e p t u a l d i s t i n c t i o n s are n o t r e i n f o r c e d by m e a n s o f e x p l i c i t c o n trasts. C o n s i d e r , f o r instance, the guitarist's 1938 i m p r o v i s a t i o n o n " B o d y a n d S o u l , " t r a n s c r i b e d i n e x a m p l e 5. T h i s solo b e g i n s i n the guitar's u p p e r register with a p a r a p h r a s e of the m e l o d y ' s o p e n i n g that inverts its characteristic a s c e n d i n g perfect fifth i n t o a f a l l i n g f o u r t h ( m . 1). I n the succeedi n g measures, however, R e i n h a r d t reverts to a m o r e l i t e r a l e x p o s i t i o n o f the m e l o d y , a f u l l two octaves l o w e r t h a n at first ( m m w . 3 f f ) . T o w a r d the e n d o f the first eight-bar s e c t i o n R e i n h a r d t departs f r o m the m e l o d y w i t h a d o u b l e - t i m e e x c u r s i o n o f the sort seen i n the "St. L o u i s B l u e s " e x c e r p t . T h r o u g h o u t the r e m a i n d e r o f the solo, h e c o n t i n u a l l y r e t u r n s to the outl i n e o f the w r i t t e n m e l o d y ; i n m m . 9 - 1 0 , it is i s o l a t e d f r o m the d o u b l e t i m e elaborative gestures, b u t o n o t h e r occasions, s u c h as the e n d o f m . 13 ( C - A - F ) , it is i n t e g r a t e d seamlessly i n t o i m p r o v i s e d m a t e r i a l . E x a m p l e 5 brackets r e g i o n s substantially based o n the o r i g i n a l t h e m e . T h e d i m i n i s h i n g level o f d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n between m e l o d i c paraphrases a n d i m p r o v i s e d passages f o u n d i n this s o l o r e c a l l s C o n e ' s c o n c e p t o f " s y n t h e s i s , " t h e process w h e r e b y "diverse elements are b r o u g h t i n t o closer a n d closer rela-

BEN GIVAN

239

Example 4: "Charleston" (1937). CHARUiSTON, by Cecil Mack and James P. Johnson. © 1923 (Renewed) Warner Bros. Inc. All Rights Reserved. Used by Permission. W A R N E R B R O S . P U B L I C A T I O N S U.S. I N C . , M i a m i , FL 33014. Original Melodv

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t i o n w i t h o n e a n o t h e r " (1989:295). B u t C o n e ' s f o r m u l a t i o n also i m p l i e s a t e l e o l o g i c a l process, w h i c h is n o t e v i d e n t i n R e i n h a r d t ' s i m p r o v i s a t i o n . R a t h e r , the m e l o d y seems to act as a constant m e n t a l g u i d e that occasionally is a l l o w e d to r e a p p e a r i n various guises. 7

240

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Example 5: "Body and Soul" (1938).

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A s e c o n d use o f d i s c o n t i n u i t y i n R e i n h a r d t ' s m u s i c is e x e m p l i f i e d at the c o n c l u s i o n o f his solo o n " B o d y a n d S o u l . " H e r e h e creates a n a b r u p t d i s c o n t i n u i t y by i n t r o d u c i n g a n a s c e n d i n g five-note gesture played i n octaves. T h i s gesture (also b r a c k e t e d i n ex. 5) is c o n c e p t u a l l y separate f r o m the m a i n b o d y o f the solo. Its f u n c t i o n is to d e m a r c a t e the f o r m a l b o u n d ary b e t w e e n t h e t h e m e ' s first s i x t e e n measures a n d the b r i d g e . I n fact, R e i n h a r d t p l a y e d a n almost i d e n t i c a l figure at the same p o i n t i n the prec e d i n g c h o r u s , w h i l e a c c o m p a n y i n g t h e p r e v i o u s soloist. T h e s e sorts o f " s t r u c t u r a l m a r k e r s , " o f t e n c h a r a c t e r i z e d by octave d o u b l i n g as i n t h e present e x a m p l e , are a r e c u r r e n t feature o f his w o r k as a n a c c o m p a n i s t . W h e n s i m i l a r devices o c c u r i n his solo i m p r o v i s a t i o n s (often p r o d u c i n g d i s j u n c t contrasts) they c a n convey the same f u n c t i o n a l m e a n i n g s . x

T h e p r o c e d u r e s d e s c r i b e d above c a n also be h e a r d i n R e i n h a r d t ' s 1937 i m p r o v i s a t i o n o n " T h e S h e i k o f A r a b y " (ex. 6 ) . T h i s solo o p e n s i n t h e g u i t a r ' s u p p e r register w i t h the b e g i n n i n g o f t h e w r i t t e n m e l o d y — t h e

BEN GIVAN

25

G7 ,

241

242

C U R R K N T MuSIC.OI.OGY

Example 6 (com.)

f a m i l i a r a s c e n d i n g n e i g h b o r - n o t e m o t i o n . B u t after just two m e a s u r e s R e i n h a r d l skips a b r u p t l y d o w n to his i n s t r u m e n t ' s lowest octave f o r almost all o f the first c h o r u s , d e p a r t i n g entirely f r o m the o r i g i n a l t u n e . T h e u p p e r register is n o t "reactivated," so to speak, u n t i l three measures i n t o the s e c o n d c h o r u s ( m . 35); this is a c c o m p l i s h e d not by a n o t h e r disjunct registral shift, but by o n e o f Reinharclt's t r a d e m a r k c h r o m a t i c scales, an especially c o n s p i c u o u s means o f traversing the d i v i d e between low a n d h i g h . A n o t h e r s t r i k i n g m o m e n t o f discontinuity d u r i n g this excerpt is the sevennote m o t i v e , played i n octaves, that briefly i n t e r r u p t s the lower-register activity ( m m . 2 2 - 2 4 ) . T h e r e are at least two p l a u s i b l e ways to a c c o u n t for this i n t e r j e c t i o n . In its h i g h l i g h t i n g o f a n F . l - D n e i g h b o r - n o t e r e l a t i o n s h i p , it recalls the o r i g i n a l m e l o d y ' s c l i m a c t i c m o m e n t ( " Y o u ' l l r u l e this l a n d . . ."), but d u e to its l o c a t i o n w i t h i n the f o r m — s l i g h t l y "too early"—it w o u l d be c o n s i d e r e d a n a n t i c i p a t o r s p a r a p h r a s e . A l t e r n a t i v e l y , it m a y f u n c t i o n as a structural m a r k e r o f the sort d e s c r i b e d i n the previous e x a m ple, since it occurs at the e n d o f a n eight-measure f o r m a l u n i t . In a d d i t i o n to m e l o d i c paraphrases a n d s t r u c t u r a l m a r k e r s , a t h i r d exp l a n a t i o n f o r d i s c o n t i n u i t y i n R e i n h a r c l t ' s m u s i c is the i n t e r p r e t a t i o n origi n a l l y suggested by H o d e i r i n his c o n i m e n t a i y o n " S o l i d O l d M a n " : the i n t e r p o l a t i o n o f a c c o m p a n i m e n t a l m a t e r i a l . A clear e x a m p l e o f this techn i q u e is h e a r d o n R e i n h a r c l t ' s 1937 r e c o r d i n g of "Japanese S a n d m a n . " T h e p e r f o r m a n c e features m e m b e r s o f the D i c k y W e l l s O r c h e s t r a , with a r h y t h m s e c t i o n c o n s i s t i n g of R e i n h a r d t ' s g u i t a r plus D i c k F u l l b r i g h t a n d B i l l B e a s o n o n bass a n d d r u m s , respectively. T h i s makes f o r a fairly t h i n m u s i c a l texture w h e n the guitarist solos, so he c o m p e n s a t e s by s t r u m m i n g c h o r d s between phrases o f his h a b i t u a l s i n g l e - s i r i n g m e l o d i c i m p r o v i s a t i o n (ex. 7). T h i s e x a m p l e s t r o n g l y s u p p o r t s H o d e i r ' s hypothesis that, w h i l e

BEN GIVAN

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i m p r o v i s i n g , R e i n h a r d t ' s m i n d m i g h t be o c c u p i e d by n o t o n l y a f i x e d r e f e r e n t i n the f o r m o f his t h e m e ' s m e l o d i c a n d h a r m o n i c m o d e l , b u t m o r e over by a n associated a c c o m p a n i m e n t a l " b a c k g r o u n d " texture.' I n a d d i t i o n to t h i c k e n i n g t h e m u s i c ' s texture, the r e a l i z a t i o n o f this c o n c e p t u a l b a c k g r o u n d i n the f o r m o f repetitive, ostinato-like patterns c a n also prevent a loss of m o m e n t u m d u r i n g lulls between phrases b e l o n g i n g to the m u s i c a l f o r e g r o u n d . T h e effect is o f s i m u l t a n e o u s p r o g r e s s i o n : t h e backg r o u n d m a t e r i a l r e m a i n s c o n c e p t u a l l y present even w h e n aurally a b s e n t . :

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R e i n h a r d t was a d e p t at s w i t c h i n g swiftly b e t w e e n b a c k g r o u n d - t y p e r h y t h m i c figures, m e l o d i c paraphrases, a n d s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d " f o r e g r o u n d " i m p r o v i s a t i o n , even at y e n fast tempos. T h i s facility is evident d u r i n g the o p e n i n g o f his 1 9 3 5 solo o n "I've H a d M y M o m e n t s " (ex. 8 ) . T h e solo's first five measures c o n t a i n a reiterated e i g h t h - n o t e f o l l o w e d by a series o f s t r u m m e d c h o r d s . T h i s passage contrasts starkly w i t h the m a t e r i a l that follows ( m m . 5 - 9 ) . It seems s t r o n g l y a c c o m p a n i m e n t a l i n c h a r a c t e r s i m p l y by virtue o f its pitch-repetitiveness, even d u r i n g the very b e g i n n i n g , w h i c h c o n t a i n s n o c h o r d a ] p l a y i n g . A t m . 5 , R e i n h a r d t a b r u p t l y shifts to the p r i n c i p a l m e l o d y (shown above t h e t r a n s c r i p t i o n ) , with a few e m b e l l i s h m e n t s , a n d i t is n o t u n t i l five m e a s u r e s later that h e b e g i n s t r u l y to i m p r o v i s e m e l o d i c lines f o r the first l i m e ( m m . lOff'). -

1 1

F o l l o w i n g f r o m this i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , t h e series o f eighth-notes i n m m . 3 2 - 3 6 c o u l d b e i d e n t i f i e d as a n o t h e r a c c o m p a n i m e n t - l i k e passage. T h i s r e a d i n g is a d m i t t e d l y m o r e tenuous t h a n t h e previous o n e , because w h i l e this s e c o n d passage is also fairly repetitive, ( a n d , l i k e the earlier passage, has a h e i g h t e n e d sense o f m o m e n t u m d u e to t h e cross-rhythms p r o d u c e d by a c c e n t i n g every' t h i r d n o t e ) , R e i n h a r d t i n t r o d u c e s several o t h e r pitches after b e g i n n i n g w i t h o n l y F^. N o n e t h e l e s s , w i t h t h e e x c e p t i o n o f the f i n a l B^s ( m . 3 6 ) , this passage's m e l o d i c p r o f i l e is m a r k e d l y d i f f e r e n t f r o m that of t h e p r e c e d i n g measures. - Repetitive figures o f this sort m a y a d d i t i o n ally carrv a f u n c t i o n as i n t e l l e c t u a l - l a b o r - s a v i n g devices: thev e n a b l e t h e 1

BEN GIVAN

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Example 8: "I've H a d My Moments" (l«JSf»). /'»'/•.' HAD MY MOMENTS, bv Gus Kahn and Walter Donaldson.

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CURRENT MUSICOLOGY

soloist to " k e e p things g o i n g " w h i l e a l l o w i n g h i m an extra s e c o n d o r two to gather i n s p i r a t i o n for m o r e i n v o l v e d activity. I n the p r e v i o u s two e x a m p l e s , the d e s i g n a t i o n o f c e r t a i n m u s i c a l material as part o f a n i m p r o v i s a t i o n ' s b a c k g r o u n d has b e e n largely p r e d i c a t e d o n its e x h i b i t i n g a relatively h o m o g e n e o u s c h a r a c t e r . A m u s i c a l a c c o m p a n i m e n t c a n , however, be d i s t i n g u i s h a b l e f r o m a p r i m a r y m e l o d y w i t h o u t b e i n g c o m p a r a t i v e l y repetitive. T h e i r r e g u l a r c o r n p i n g o f a pianist, o r the s p o r a d i c int er ject i ons by a d r u m m e r o n a snare o r bass d r u m , are often i n tegral e l e m e n t s o f a n interactive jazz r h y t h m s e c t i o n as it s u p p o r t s an i m p r o v i s i n g s o l o i s t . I n the c o n t e x t o f a l a r g e r e n s e m b l e , s u c h as the b i g b a n d s o f the S w i n g E r a , a soloist m a y be a c c o m p a n i e d by i n s t r u m e n t a l b a c k g r o u n d s , o r riffs. A n d i n R e i n h a r d t ' s m u s i c o n e f i n d s i n s t a n c e s

of

m u s i c a l d i s c o n t i n u i t y r e s u l t i n g f r o m t h e i n s e r t i o n of r i f f - l i k e m a t e r i a l w i t h i n a single-note solo. T h i s represents a n a d d i t i o n a l sort o f d i s c o n t i n u ous p r a c t i c e ; it m a y be c o n s i d e r e d a s e c o n d a r y

type o f b a c k g r o u n d -

oriented technique. R e i n h a r d t often juxtaposes

s h o r t , r i f f - l i k e f r a g m e n t s against

mono-

p h o n i c m e l o d i e s , usually w i t h s y m m e t r i c a l m e t r i c g r o u p i n g s . T h i s techn i q u e is i l l u s t r a t e d i n e x a m p l e 9, f r o m his 1939

r e c o r d i n g of "jeepers

C r e e p e r s . " In the n i n t h m e a s u r e of his s e c o n d i m p r o v i s e d c h o r u s , the g u i tarist i n t r o d u c e s a two-measure p hras e f e a t u r i n g three-part c h o r d s . T h e c h o r d s are a n s w e r e d by a single-note m e l o d y . A variant of the c h o r d a l passage follows, a n d is i n t u r n s u c c e e d e d by an e n t i r e l y d i f f e r e n t single-note phrase ( m m . 1 3 - 1 6 ) . T h e c u m u l a t i v e result is r e m i n i s c e n t o f the sort o f call-and-response

effects f r e q u e n t l y h e a r d i n b i g b a n d

arrangements,

w h e n a soloist alternates w i t h a l a r g e r e n s e m b l e . B i g b a n d a r r a n g e m e n t s o f the S w i n g E r a o f t e n feature short riff-like e n s e m b l e passages at the b e g i n n i n g of a c h o r u s , o r o t h e r s i g n i f i c a n t f o r m a l d i v i s i o n , c r e a t i n g a sort o f m u s i c a l p u n c t u a t i o n d u r i n g an i m p r o v i s e d solo. In the same wax, R e i n h a r d t tends to i n t e r j e c t b r i e f r i f f - l i k e statements, g e n e r a l l v two o r f o u r measures i n d u r a t i o n a n d p l a y e d i n c h o r d s o r octaves, at the b e g i n n i n g o f a f o r m a l s e c t i o n . E x a m p l e 10, a n e x c e r p t f r o m his 1949

solo o n Irving B e r l i n ' s " M a r i e , " indicates one such

instance

( m m . 9 - 1 2 ) , p l a y e d i n octaves at the top o f a new c h o r u s . Passages such as this m a y also f u n c t i o n as s t r u c t u r a l m a r k e r s . H o w e v e r , they d i f f e r f r o m the m o r e c o m m o n instances o f such devices i n that they usually begin o n o r a r o u n d the d o w n b e a t o f a new f o r m a l u n i t , whereas m o r e e x p l i c i t struct u r a l m a r k e r s t e n d to end a p p r o x i m a t e l y o n (or slightly before) the c r u c i a l downbeat. B e f o r e p r o c e e d i n g f u r t h e r , it is w o r t h n o t i n g that i n c e r t a i n cases backg r o u n d m a t e r i a l , d i f f e r e n t i a t e d f r o m its s u r r o u n d i n g s by register, textur e, o r m o t i v i c c o n t e n t , may not necessarily f u n c t i o n o n l y as a c o n t r a s t i n g supp l e m e n t to the f o r e g r o u n d . F o r instance, it c a n o c c a s i o n a l l y be the site o f

BEN GIVAN

249

s e l f - c o n t a i n e d m o t i v i c d e v e l o p m e n t , as o c c u r s i n a c o m p a r a t i v e l y l e n g t h y excursion

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" H . C . Q . Strut." T h i s s i m p l e i h e m e features a repetitive bass l i n e that descends c h r o m a t i c a l l y f r o m 4 t h r o u g h 3, u n d e r p i n n i n g a II—V'—I h a r m o n i c p r o g r e s s i o n . T h e m e l o d y a n d bass l i n e o f the tune's A - s e c t i o n are s h o w n i n e x a m p l e 1 1. ( T h e bass p l a y e r o n the r e c o r d i n g g e n e r a l l y plavs this bass l i n e w i t h little v a r i a t i o n . ) T w o measures i n t o his solo's s e c o n d c h o r u s ( m . 6 i n e x a m p l e 12), R e i n h a r d t switches a b r u p t l y f r o m a n elaborate

arpeg-

giated f o r e g r o u n d m e l o d y to a figure d e r i v e d f r o m this u n d e r l y i n g bass line.

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250

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also a d d i n g a n o t h e r n o t e a m i n o r seventh above each b a s s - d o u b l i n g note. T h e resultant m o t i v e , w h i c h is i n s h a r p contrast to all that precedes it, is s o o n t r a n s f o r m e d i n t o a t h r e e - n o t e a s c e n d i n g gesture that is d e v e l o p e d over the next ten measures. T h e n , just as a b r u p t l y , R e i n h a r d t reverts to f o r e g r o u n d m o d e ( m . 16), g i v i n g the i m p r e s s i o n o f h a v i n g m o r e o r less r e s u m e d w h e r e he left off. D u r i n g litis i n t e r l u d e , w h i c h is clearly i n s p i r e d bv the t i m e ' s bass l i n e a n d out o f c h a r a c t e r with the s u r r o u n d i n g u p p e r register m e l o d i c activity, R e i n h a r d t r e m a i n s creatively i n v o l v e d w i t h the s o l o ' s b a c k g r o u n d l o n g e n o u g h to e n d o w it w i t h a d e g r e e o f v a r i e t y , r a t h e r than treating it as c o m p a r a t i v e l y h o m o g e n e o u s

(in the m a n n e r of

e x a m p l e s 7 a n d 8). T o g e t h e r , the f o r e g o i n g e x a m p l e s suggest the f o l l o w i n g hypothesis: disc o n t i n u o u s regions o f R e i n h a r d t ' s i m p r o v i s a t i o n s may be

manifestations

o f d i f f e r e n t strata o f his subjective consciousness. H i s p r e d o m i n a n t m o d e o f creative p e r f o r m a n c e involves the p r o d u c t i o n o f n o v e l m e l o d i c mater i a l . Bu t this f o r e g r o u n d e d , p r i m a r y m a t e r i a l is c o n c e i v e d w i t h r e f e r e n c e to a h a r m o n i c s c h e m e that o r d i n a r i l y s u p p o r t s a m e l o d y . F r o m time to t i m e , this m e l o d v — u s u a l l y c o n s i g n e d to R e i n h a r d t ' s i n n e r

consciousness

— i s m a d e e x p l i c i t , o f t e n i n a way that sets it off f r o m the s u r r o u n d i n g passages. F u r t h e r m o r e , R e i n h a r d t also appears to sustain an i n n e r i m a g e of the passing h a r m o n i e s i n the f o r m o f a repetitive r h y t h m i c o s t i n a t o .

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CURRENT MUSICOLOGY

272 No/ex

* I w o u l d l i k e to t h a n k R a m o n S a t y e n d r a , P a t r i c k M c C r e l e s s , Robert P. M o r g a n , a n d M i c h a e l F r i c d m a n n f o r t h e i r c o m m e n t s o n e a r l i e r draffs o f this p a p e r . A vers i o n was p r e s e n t e d at the A n n u a l M e e t i n g o f t h e S o c i e t y f o r M u s i c T h e o r y i n P h i l a d e l p h i a , P e r m . , N o v e m b e r 2001. 1. F o r e x a m p l e , clarinetist Pee W e e Russell states. "I usually t h i n k a b o u t f o u r bars a h e a d what I ' m g o i n g to p l a v " ; flugelhorn player A r t F a r m e r observes "1 rarely k n o w what I ' m g o i n g to d o i n a s o l o m o r e t h a n a m e a s u r e o r two a h e a d " ; a n d tenor saxophonist W a r n e M a r s h claims " M y m i n d works a h e a d a bar or two" (Balliett 1996:138, 447, 4 9 2 ) . 2. F o r i n s t a n c e , v i b r a p h o n i s t M i l l Jackson attests that "I k e e p the m e l o d y i n m i n d . I always r e m e m b e r the m e l o d y a n d t h e n I have s o m e t h i n g to fall b a c k o n w h e n I get lost" (Balliett 1996:308). Pianist H a n k Jones states that " y o u t h i n k a b o u t the c h o r d p a t t e r n — n o t e a c h c h o r d — a n d y o u t h i n k a b o u t the m e l o d y " (Balliett 2000b:837). 3. O n e c o u l d , o f c o u r s e , a d d to this list by i n c l u d i n g p h e n o m e n a s u c h as the " m o m e n t f o r m " c o d i f i e d i n the w r i t i n g s o f K a r l h c i n z S t o c k h a u s e n (for a s u m m a i y , see K r a m e r 1 9 7 8 ) , o r v a r i o u s postmodern " c o l l a g e " techniques. E v e n t h e R o m a n t i c (or m o d e r n i s t ) n o t i o n o f o r g a n i c i s m c a n be c o n c e i v e d i n d i a l e c t i c a l terms, f o r e x a m p l e , as the synthesis o f c o n t r a s t i n g ideas (see C h e r l i n 2 0 0 0 ) . 4. O n all but t h r e e o f the r e c o r d i n g s d i s c u s s e d i n this essay R e i n h a r d t is a c c o m p a n i e d by m e m b e r s o f the Q u i n t e t o f the H o t C l u b of F r a n c e . P e r s o n n e l varies, but the Q u i n t e t ' s r h y t h m s e c t i o n always consists o f two guitars a n d a d o u b l e bass. T h e t h r e e e x c e p t i o n s are the p r e v i o u s l y m e n t i o n e d p e r f o r m a n c e of " S o l i d O l d M a n , " a c c o m p a n i e d by B i l l v T a y l o r (bass) a n d B a r n e y R i g a r d ( d r u m s ) ; "Japanese S a n d m a n , " a c c o m p a n i e d by D i c k F u l l b r i g h t (bass) a n d B i l l Reason ( d r u m s ) ; a n d " M a r i e , " a c c o m p a n i e d by G i a n n i S a i l e d ( p i a n o ) , C a r l o R e c o r i (bass), a n d A u r e l i o de Carolis (drums). 5. O n several of R e i n h a r d t ' s o t h e r r e c o r d i n g s , a n a l o g o u s i n t e r c h a n g e s o c c u r b e t w e e n two d i f f e r e n t i n s t r u m e n t s . F o r instance, o n " S t u d i o 24" ( A p r i l H i , 1942; m a t r i x 16192) R e i n h a r d t i n t e r p o l a t e s g u i t a r " f i l l s " b e t w e e n m e l o d i c phrases p l a y e d by pianist Ivcm d e B i e . 6. In fact, t h e r e are r e m a r k a b l y few r e c o r d i n g s o n w h i c h R e i n h a r d t plays, i n r e c o g n i z a b l e f o r m , a m e l o d y that is not his o w n f o r a p e r i o d o f m o r e t h a n a b o u t four measures without i n t e r r u p t i o n . 7. A strict, p r a c t i c a l l y v i a b l e d e f i n i t i o n o f m e l o d i c p a r a p h r a s e i n jazz i m p r o v i s a t i o n has e l u d e d jazz scholars f o r reasons i l l u s t r a t e d by e x a m p l e 5: p e r f o r m e r s o f t e n utilize p a r a p h r a s e v e i v freely (for a b r i e f d i s c u s s i o n o f this issue, see W i l l i a m s 1997— 9 8 ) . F o r i n s t a n c e , Harker ( 1 9 9 9 : 5 8 f f ) cites Louis Armstrong's d i m i n i s h i n g d i f f e r entiation between m e l o d i c paraphrases a n d arpeggiated, harmonically-oriented i m p r o v i s e d melodies as a feature o f the t r u m p e t e r ' s stylistic e v o l u t i o n d u r i n g the mid-to-late 1920s. 8. T h i s t e r m is used by B e r l i n e r ' (1994:626 a n d p a s s i m ) . 9. Musical a c c o m p a n i m e n t s , in a variety o f genres, are o f t e n c h a r a c t e r i z e d by the r e p e t i t i o n o f s h o r t m u s i c a l u n i t s . In the t e r m i n o l o g y o f G e s l a l t psychology',

RKN G l V A N

273

r e p e t i t i v e a c c o m p a n i m e n t s c o n s t i t u t e a " g r o u n d " against w h i c h a l i s t e n e r c a n i n d i viduate a f o r e g r o u n d e d m e l o d i c "figure." 10. I s h o u l d e m p h a s i z e that i n this p a p e r the t e r m s " f o r e g r o u n d " a n d "backg r o u n d " o u g h t not be c o n f u s e d w i t h t h e s a m e t e r m s as u s e d i n

Schenkerian

theory. 11. H e r e it s h o u l d be a c k n o w l e d g e d that the a n a l y t i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e t a k e n i n this p a p e r g e n e r a l l y p r i v i l e g e s the p a r a m e t e r o f p i t c h above r h y t h m . T h a t is, passages o f m u s i c ate o f t e n c o n t r a s t e d o n the basis o f d i f f e r i n g p i t c h - c o m p l e x i t y , even t h o u g h l l i e v may n o t be so r e a d i l y d i s t i n g u i s h e d w i t h respect to r h y t h m (or, f o r that m a t t e r , t i m b r e , d y n a m i c s , a n d so f o r t h ) . T h i s bias is c l e a r l y o p e n to q u e s t i o n . 12. T h o u g h it is d i f f i c u l t to t e l l c o n c l u s i v e l y f r o m t h e r e c o r d i n g , I suspect

that

b o t h o f these passages are a c t u a l l y p l a y e d by a l t e r n a t i n g t h r e e strokes o n a n o p e n s t r i n g w i t h three s t o p p e d notes o n the a d j a c e n t l o w e r s t r i n g . 13. I i n t e r p r e t this as a " b a c k g r o u n d " f i g u r e b e c a u s e o f its d i r e c t

connection

w i t h the t h e m e ' s h a r m o n i c m o d e l ( s p e c i f i c a l l y , its bass p r o g r e s s i o n ) , t h o u g h it c l e a r l y d o e s n o t e x h i b i t the sort o f o s t i n a t o - l i k e f i g u r a t i o n that I have suggested is m o r e typical o f b a c k g r o u n d m a t e r i a l i n R e i n h a r d t ' s m u s i c . 14. L i k e m a n y o f this a r t i c l e ' s s p e c u l a t i o n s , this c l a i m is clearly not v e r i f i a b l e . S t i l l , l i k e rnv c o n j e c t u r e s that R e i n h a r d t may sustain a m e n t a l i m a g e o f a t h e m e ' s m e l o d y a n d h a r m o n i c s t r u c t u r e w h i l e i m p r o v i s i n g , it is s o m e w h a t c o r r o b o r a t e d bv the a c c o u n t s o f o t h e r p e r f o r m e r s . F o r i n s t a n c e , i n a masterclass at the U n i v e r s i t y o f N e w H a m p s h i r e , D u r h a m , i n the s p r i n g o f 1992, the jazz pianist J o h n B u n c h commented

that, w h e n p l a y i n g u p - t e m p o u n a c c o m p a n i e d

improvisations, he

w o u l d o f t e n i m a g i n e a d r u m m e r a c c o m p a n y i n g h i m . T h i s is a k i n to the " r e p e t i t i v e r h y t h m i c o s t i n a t o " a b o u t w h i c h I h y p o t h e s i z e h e r e , t h o u g h o f c o u r s e a d r u m acc o m p a n i m e n t , u n l i k e a g u i t a r ' s , lacks p i t c h ( a n d , u n l i k e B u n c h , R e i n h a r d t is playing with a c c o m p a n i m e n t ) . 15. " E x t e r n a l s o u n d s " c a n i n c l u d e the p r e c e d i n g i m p r o v i s e d m e l o d y , as w e l l as the c o n t r i b u t i o n s o f o t h e r m e m b e r s o f the e n s e m b l e , o r e v e n , m o t e rarely, s o u n d s o r i g i n a t i n g o u t s i d e o f the e n s e m b l e a l t o g e t h e r . T h e latter sorts o f i n t e r a c t i v e p h e n o m e n a ( w h i c h are f u n d a m e n t a l to M o n s o n 1996) are not a d d r e s s e d i n this p a p e r . I n d e e d , i n c o m p a r i s o n to the p o s t - W o r l d W a r II jazz styles that are Monson's p r i mary focus, R e i n h a r d t ' s S w i n g E r a i m p r o v i s a t i o n s (particularly those w i t h

the

Q u i n t e t o f the H o t C l u b o f F r a n c e ) a p p e a r to i n v o l v e far less m u s i c a l i n t e r a c t i o n of an explicit nature. 16. T h i s s t a t e m e n t r e p r e s e n t s m y o w n o v e r s i m p l i f i c a t i o n o f S a r a t h ' s a c c o u n t ; it is c o n c e i v a b l e that a r e p e t i t i v e passage m i g h t well i n d i c a t e a h i g h e r rate o f c o g n i tive event cycles, s h o u l d the p e r f o r m e r c o n s t a n t l y be e v a d i n g a c o n t i n u a t i o n that w o u l d , i n c o n t e x t , be a m o r e r o u t i n e p o s s i b i l i t y (see S a r a t h 1996:11). 17. A g a i n , this g e n e r a l h y p o t h e s i s is d r a w n o n l y loosely f r o m b o t h Sarath's detailed f r a m e w o r k a n d K o n i t / ' s far b r i e f e r , a n d c o m p a r a t i v e l y m e t a p h o r i c a l , r e m a r k s . 18. S o m e m i n o r a d d i t i o n a l o b s e r v a t i o n s : the f i g u r e i n m . 16 that i n t r o d u c e s a n e w f o u r - m e a s u r e u n i t is h e r e classified as a s t r u c t u r a l m a r k e r d u e to its s i m i l a r i t y with other such

figures

that R e i n h a r d t s o m e t i m e s e m p l o y e d w h e n a c c o m p a n y i n g

o t h e r s , s u c h as c a n be h e a r d o n " E c h o e s o f F r a n c e . " f r o m the s a m e r e c o r d i n g

CURRENT

274

MUSICOLOGY

session ( J a n u a r y 31, 1946; m a t r i x O E F 28-1). A l s o , the f i g u r e i n m . 28 is assigned to the c o n c e p t u a l b a c k g r o u n d solely b e c a u s e of its soft d y n a m i c level, s u c h that it suggests an e m b e l l i s h e d " e c h o " of the preceding Bl>-F.l> m o t i v e that i n v o k e s the original melody. 19.

A d o s e analysis o f R e i n h a r d t ' s i m p r o v i s a t i o n s that f o c u s e d o n issues of

s t r u c t u r a l u n i t y m i g h t well y i e l d i n t e r e s t i n g i n s i g h t s , but s u c h questions have

(in-

tentionally) not b e e n a c o n c e r n o f this a r t i c l e .

References B a l l i e t t , W h i t n e y . 1996.

II: Seventy-two Portraits hi Jazz. N e w Y o r k :

American Musicians

O x f o r d U n i v e r s i t y Press. . 2 0 0 0 a . Seeirrg M u s i c . New

Yorker ( S e p t e m b e r 11): 9 8 - 1 0 0 . R e p r i n t e d i n

Balliett ( 2 0 0 0 6 : 8 5 4 - 5 8 ) . . 2 0 0 0 b . Collected Works: A Journal

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N e w Y o r k : St. M a r t i n ' s

Press. B e r l i n e r , Parrl. 1994.

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in Jazz: The Infinite

Chicago:

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U n i v e r s i t y of Chicago Press. B l o c k , Steven. 1990. Pitch-Class T r a n s f o r m a t i o n i n F r e e fa//.. Music Theory Spectrum 12: 181-202. Cherlin,

M i c h a e l . 2000. Dialectical

Opposition

in Schoenberg's

Music aird

T h o u g h t . Music Theory Spectrum 22: 157-76. C o n e , E d w a r d T . 1989. Stravinsky: T h e P r o g r e s s of a M e t h o d . In Music:

A Vino

From Delft: Selected Essays, e d i t e d by R o b e r t P . M o r g a n . 2 9 3 - 3 0 1 . C h i c a g o : U n i v e r s i t y o f C h i c a g o Press. F l o v d , S a m u e l A . , Jr. 1995.

Ike Power oj Blaik Music: Interpreting Its History from

Africa

to the United Stales. N e w Y o r k : O x f o r d U n i v e r s i t y Press. Giddins, G a r y . 1988. Salchmo. N e w Y o r k : D o l p h i n . Grrshee, L a w r e n c e . 1981.

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Congress, Berkeley 1977,

Twelfth

M u s i c o l o g i c a l Society. E d i t e d by D a n i e l

Heart/, a n d B o n n i e W a d e , 1 5 1 - 6 9 . Kassel:

Barenreiter.

Marker, B r i a n . 1999. " T e l l i n g a Story": L o u i s Armstrong a n d C o h e r e n c e

in Earlv

fa//. Current Musicology, rro. 63: 4 6 - 8 3 . H a r t m a n , Charles O . 1991. Jazz Text: Voice and Improvisation

in Poetry, Jazz, and Song.

P r i n c e t o n : P r i n c e t o n U n i v e r s i t y Press. H o d e i r . A n d r e . 1956.

Jazz: Its Evolution

and

Essence. T r a n s l a t e d by D a v i d N o a k e s .

N e w Y o r k : G r o v e Press. . 1962 Toward Jazz. T r a n s l a t e d by N o e l B u r c h . New York: Grove Press. K c r n f e l d , B a r r y . 1981. Adderley, Coltrane, and Davis at the Twilight oj Bebop: The Search for Melodic Coherence (1958-59).

P h . D . diss., C o r n e l l U n i v e r s i t y .

. 1995. Wliat to Listen Tor in Jazz. N e w H a v e n , C o n n . : Yale U n i v e r s i t y Press. K r a m e r , J o n a t h a n . 1978.

M o m e n t F o r m i n Twentieth-Century M u s i c .

Musical

(Tuarterly 64: 177-94. L a r s o n , Steve. 1998. S c h e n k e r i a n A n a l y s i s of M o d e r n J a z z . Music 20: 2 0 9 - 4 1 .

Theory Spectrum

BEN GIVAN . 1999. S w i n g a n d M o t i v e i n T h r e e P e r f o r m a n c e s bv O s c a r P e t e r s o n , of Music Theory*?,:

275 journal

283-314.

M a r t i n , H c n r v . 1 9 9 6 . Charlie

Parker

and Thematic

Lanham, M d . :

Improvisation.

S c a r e c r o w Press. M o n s o n , I n g r i d . 1996. Saying Something: Jazz Improvisation

and Interaction.

Chicago:

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