CHAPTER
1
Oil Spills: Why Do They Happen and How Often? Major oil spills attract the attention of the public and the media. In recent years, this attention has created a global awareness of the risks of oil spills and the damage they do to the environment. However, oil is a necessity in our industrial society, and a major sustainer of our lifestyle. Most of the energy used in Canada and the United States is for transportation that runs on oil and petroleum products. According to trends in energy usage, this is not likely to decrease much in the future. Industry uses oil and petroleum derivatives to manufacture such vital products as plastics, fertilizers, and chemical feedstocks, which will still be required in the future. In fact, the production and consumption of oil and petroleum products are increasing worldwide and the threat of oil pollution is increasing accordingly. The movement of petroleum from the oil fields to the consumer involves as many as 10 to 15 transfers between many different modes of transportation including tankers, pipelines, railcars, and tank trucks. Oil is stored at transfer points and at terminals and refineries along the route. Accidents can happen during any of these transportation steps or storage times. Obviously, an important part of protecting the environment is ensuring that there are as few spills as possible. Both government and industry are working to reduce the risk of oil spills, with the introduction of strict new legislation and stringent operating codes. Industry has invoked new operating and maintenance procedures to reduce accidents that lead to spills. Intensive training programs have been developed to reduce the potential for human error. There are also many deterrents to oil spills, including government fines and the high cost of cleanup. In Canada, it costs an average of $20 to clean up each litre of oil spilled. In the United States, these costs average about $100 per litre spilled. The average cost of cleanup worldwide ranges from $20 to $200 per litre, depending on the type of oil and where it is spilled. Cleaning up oil on shorelines is usually the most expensive cleanup process.
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Photo 1
The Amoco Cadiz sinking off the coast of France in 1978. (International Maritime Organization)
How Often Do Spills Occur? Oil spills are a frequent occurrence, particularly because of the heavy use of oil and petroleum products in our daily lives. About 260,000 tons of oil and petroleum products are used in Canada every day. The United States uses about 10 times this amount and, worldwide, about 10 million tons are used per day. Most domestic oil production in Canada is from approximately 50,000 oil wells in Alberta and Saskatchewan. There are 22 oil refineries in Canada, 5 of which are classified as large. Canada imports about 130,000 tons of crude oil or other products per day but exports about 220,000 tons per day, mostly to the United States. In the United States, more than half of the approximately 2.6 million tons of oil and petroleum products used per day is imported, primarily from Saudi Arabia, Canada, and Venezuela. About 40% of the daily demand in the U.S. is for automotive gasoline and about 15% is for diesel fuel used in transportation. About 40% of the energy used in the United States comes from petroleum, 35% from natural gas, and 24% from coal. Spill statistics are collected by a number of agencies in Canada and the United States. In Canada, provincial offices collect data and Environment Canada maintains a database of spills. In the United States, the Coast Guard maintains a database of spills into navigable waters, while state agencies keep statistics on spills on land that are sometimes gathered into national statistics. The Minerals Management Service (MMS) in the United States maintains records of spills from offshore exploration and production activities. ©2000 by CRC Press LLC
Photo 2
Most oil spillage occurs on land and comes from a variety of facilities, including refineries such as this one. (Environment Canada)
It can sometimes be misleading to compare oil spill statistics, however, because different methods are used to collect the data. In general, statistics on oil spills are difficult to obtain and any data set should be viewed with caution. The spill volume or amount is the most difficult to determine or estimate. For example, in the case of a vessel accident, the exact volume in a given compartment may be known before the accident, but the remaining oil may have been transferred to other ships immediately after the accident. Some spill accident data banks do not include the amounts burned, if and when that occurs, whereas others include all the oil lost by whatever means. Sometimes the exact character or physical properties of the oil lost are not known and this leads to different estimations of the amount lost. Reporting procedures vary in different jurisdictions and organizations, such as government or private companies. Minimum spill amounts that must be reported according to federal regulations in Canada and the U.S. vary from 400 to 8000 L, depending on the product spilled. Spill statistics compiled in the past are less reliable than more recent data because few agencies or individuals collected spill statistics before about 1975. The number of spills reported also depends on the minimum size or volume of the spill. In both Canada and the United States, most oil spills reported are more than 4000 L (about 1000 gallons). In Canada, there are about 12 such oil spills every day, of which only about one is spilled into navigable waters. These 12 spills amount to about 40 tons of oil or petroleum product. In the United States, there are about 25 spills per day into navigable waters and an estimated 75 spills on land.
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Photo 3
The Kirki leaks oil after losing its bow section. (Oil Spill Response Limited)
Despite the large number of spills, only a small percentage of oil used in the world is actually spilled. Oil spills in Canada and the United States are summarized in Figures 1 and 2 in terms of the volume of oil spilled and the actual number of spills. In terms of oil spills, it can be seen from these figures that there are certainly differences between the two countries. There are more spills into navigable waters in the United States proportionately than in Canada because more oil is imported by sea and more fuel is transported by barge. In fact, the largest volume of oil spilled in water in the U.S. comes from barges, while the largest number of spills comes from vessels other than tankers, bulk carriers, or freighters. In Canada, most spills take place on land and this accounts for a high volume of oil spilled. Pipeline spills account for the highest volume of oil spilled. In terms of the actual number of spills, most oil spills happen at petroleum production facilities, wells, production collection facilities, and battery sites. On water, the
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Figure 1
Summary of typical annual Canadian spills.
greatest volume of oil spilled comes from marine or refinery terminals, although the largest number of spills is from the same source as in the U.S. — vessels other than tankers, bulk carriers, or freighters. The sources of oil spills, the types of oil spilled into the sea, and the causes of spills from any type of ship or vessel worldwide are shown in Figure 3. Half of the oil spilled in the seas is the runoff of oil and fuel from land-based sources, usually from wastewater. Much lubricating oil finds its way into wastewater, which is often discharged directly into the sea. About 24% of oil spilled into the sea comes from the transportation sector, which includes tankers, freighters, barges, and other vessels. Natural sources of oil constitute about 11% of the input. Natural sources include
©2000 by CRC Press LLC
Figure 2
Summary of spills into navigable waters in U.S. (typical annual spills).
the many natural “seeps” or discharges from oil-bearing strata on the ocean floor that reach the surface. Atmospheric sources constitute 13% of oil pollution in the sea. This pollution is the result of hydrocarbons in the air from a variety of sources and causes such as inefficient combustion. Much of the material is re-precipitated onto land and subsequently ends up in the sea. As shown in Figure 3, most oils spilled into the sea worldwide are fuels (48%) and then crude oils (29%). Fuels consist primarily of Bunker oils and intermediate fuel oils (IFO) which consist of Bunker oils mixed with fuels such as diesel. Figure 3 also shows that grounding is the leading cause of oil spills from vessels (26%),
©2000 by CRC Press LLC
Photo 4
Spills from pipelines constitute a large amount of spillage on land and near shore. (Oil Spill Response Limited)
followed by collision at 22%. Some other accidental causes of oil spills are explosion/fire (9%), ramming (9%), and sinking (7%), with human error (5%) and mechanical failure (2%) causing the least number of spills. A list of the largest oil spills in the last 30 years is provided in Table 1. Data are derived from Environment Canada, the Oil Spill Intelligence Report, the general literature on oil spills, the United States Coast Guard, and industry associations such as the International Tanker Owners Pollution Federation (ITOPF) and the American Petroleum Institute (API). The spills are listed according to their volume, beginning with the largest spill to date — the release of oil during the Gulf War in 1991. There have been several large oil spills from pipelines, storage tanks, and blowouts at production wells. People often have the misconception that oil spills from tankers are the primary source of oil pollution in the marine environment. While it is true that most of the large spills are from tankers, it must be recognized that these spills still make up less than about 5% of all oil pollution entering the sea. The sheer volume of oil spilled from tankers and the high profile given these incidents in the media have contributed to this misconception. In fact, as stated earlier, half of the oil spilled in the seas is the runoff of oil and fuel from land-based sources rather than from accidental spills. In conclusion, it is important to study spill incidents from the past to learn how the oil affected the environment, what cleanup techniques worked and what improvements can be made, and to identify the gaps in technology. Photographs of many of the incidents listed in Table 1 appear throughout this book as examples of oil behaviour and cleanup techniques. ©2000 by CRC Press LLC
Figure 3
Statistical summary of sources of oil into the seas worldwide.
©2000 by CRC Press LLC
Photo 5
The IXTOC well blowout in Mexican waters is the second largest spill recorded to date. (Environment Canada)
Photo 6
Rapid action to remove remaining oil can prevent further loss as was the case during the Exxon Valdez incident. (Foss Environmental)
©2000 by CRC Press LLC
Table 1
Major Spills
No.
Year
Month/ Day
1 2 3
1991 1979 1979
Jan 26 Jun 5 Jul 19
4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22
1992 1993 1983 1978 1988 1991 1980 1967 1972 1980 1981 1971 1994 1977 1979 1976 1969 1978 1993
23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33
Ship/Incident
Country
Location
Tons (X103)
Kuwait Mexico Off Tobago
Sea Island Gulf of Mexico Caribean Sea
800 470 300
Mar 2 Feb 4 Aug 6 Mar 16 Nov 10 Apr 11 Aug 11 Mar 18 Dec 19 Feb 23 Aug 20 Dec 7 Oct 25 Feb 23 Nov 15 May 12 Feb 11 May 25 Jan 5
Gulf war IXTOC blowout Atlantic Empress/Aegean Captain Oil well blowout Oil platform blowout Castillo de Bellver Amoco Cadiz Odyssey Haven Oil well blowout Torrey Canyon Sea Star Irene’s Serenade Storage tanks Texaco Denmark Pipeline rupture Hawaiian Patriot Independentza Urquiola Julius Schindler Pipeline rupture Braer
Uzbekistan Iran South Africa France Off Canada Italy Libya England Oman Greece Kuwait Belgium Russia Off USA Turkey Spain Portugal Iran United Kingdom
300 270 260 235 145 140 140 130 125 120 110 107 105 100 100 100 100 100 85
1979 1975 1992 1985 1996 1989 1971 1970 1991 1978 1975
Jul 6 Jan 29 Dec 3 Dec 6 Feb 15 Dec 19 Feb 27 Mar 20 May 28 Dec 11 May 13
Storage tanks Jakob Maersk Aegean Sea Nova Sea Empress Kark 5 Wafra Othello ABT Summer Fuel storage tank Epic Colocotronis
Nigeria Portugal Spain Iran United Kingdom Morocco South Africa Sweden Off Angola Rhodesia United States
Fergana Valley Nowruz field Saldanha Bay Brittany North Atlantic Genoa inland Land’s End Gulf of Oman Pylos Shuaybah North Sea Usinsk West of Hawaii Bosporus Strait La Coruna Azores Ahvazin Shetland Islands Forcados Oporto La Coruna Persian Gulf Milford Haven Atlantic Ocean Atlantic Ocean Vaxholm Atlantic Ocean Salisbury West of Puerto Rico
34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43
1960 1978 1992 1974 1983 1978 1965 1983 1968 1974
Dec 6 Jun 12 Apr 17 Nov 9 Jan 7 Dec 31 May 22 Dec 9 Jun 13 Aug 9
Sinclair Petrolore Fuel storage tank Katina P Yuyo Maro 10 Assimi Andros Patria Heimvard Peracles GC World Glory Metula
Brazil Japan South Africa Japan Oman Spain Japan Qatar South Africa Chile
44 45
1975 1970
Jan 13 Jun 1
British Ambassador Ennerdale
Japan Seychelles
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Sendai Indian Ocean Tokyo Ras al Had Bay of Biscay Hokkaido Persian Gulf Indian Ocean Straits of Magellan Iwo Jima Indian Ocean
85 80 75 75 72 70 70 70 70 65 60 60 60 60 54 53 50 50 48 48 47 46 46
Table 1
Major Spills (Continued)
No.
Year
Month/ Day
46
1994
Oct 21
Thanassis A
Hong Kong
47
1978
Dec 7
Tadotsu
Indonesia
48 49
1968 1974
Feb 29 Dec 18
Mandoil Storage tank
United States Japan
50
1979
Aug 26
Patianna
51
1972
Jun 11
Trader
United Arab Emirates Greece
52 53
1989 1980
Mar 24 Dec 29
54 55 56 57 58 59
1988 1973 1978 1976 1978 1996
Apr 22 Jun 10 Dec 14 Feb 6 Oct 19 Mar 7
Exxon Valdez Juan Antonio Lavalleja Athenian Venture Napier Storage tank St. Peter Pipeline rupture Unknown tanker
60 61 62 63
1979 1977 1977 1986
Nov 1 Jan 17 Feb 7 Oct 3
64
1972
Jan 28
Burmah Agate Irene's Challenge Borag Abkatun Production well blowout Golden Drake
65 66
1979 1970
Apr 28 Dec 28
Gino Chryssi
67 68 69
1970 1968 1971
May 5 Feb 8 Mar
Polycommander Pegasus Texaco Oklahoma
70
1969
Nov 25
Panocean
71 72 73 74 75 76
1977 1976 1976 1986 1977 1979
May 27 Apr 25 Jul 28 Apr 27 Dec 16 Aug 16
77
1976
Dec 30
Caribbean Sea Ellen Conway Cretan Star Storage tank -Texaco Venpet & Venoil Ioannis Angelicoussis Grand Zenith
78
1969
Nov 25
Keo
79
1997
Oct 15
Evoikos
North West Atlantic North West Atlantic Singapore
80
1982
Nov 26
Haralabos
Eygpt
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Ship/Incident
Country
United States Algeria Off Canada Chile United States Colombia Turkey Mexico United States Pacific Ocean Taiwan Mexico North West Atlantic France North West Atlantic Spain North Atlantic North West Atlantic Taiwan East Pacific Algeria Indian Ocean Panama South Africa Angola
Location South China Sea Straits of Malacca Oregon Mizushima refinery Dubai Mediterranean Sea Valdez, AK Arzew Atlantic Ocean Off west coast Puerto Rico Pacific Ocean Mardin Bay of Campeche Galveston Chilung Bay of Campeche
Tons (X103) 46 44 43 39 38 37 37 37 37 36 36 36 35 35 35 35 34 34 34
Brittany
33 33
Vigo North Atlantic
32 32 32
North West Pacific
32
Arzew Bahia las Minas Malongo
32 31 31 30 30 30 30 30
Straits of Singapore Ras Gharib
29 27
Table 1
Major Spills (Continued)
No.
Year
Month/ Day
81
1977
Mar 22
82 83 84
1979 1972 1980
Jan 8 Apr 1 Jan 17
85 86 87
1976 1977 1993
88 89 90
Ship/Incident
Country Norway
Dec 15 Oct 28 Jan 21
Offshore Platform — Ekofisk Bravo Betelgeuse Guiseppe Guiljetti Funiwa #5 well blowout Argo Merchant Al Sabbiyah Maersk Navigator
1983 1989 1994
May 15 Dec 29 Jan 24
Bellona Aragon Cosmos A.
Sweden Portugal Hong Kong
91 92
1967 1972
Oct 1 Jun 22
Offshore pipeline Storage tank
USA USA
93
1981
Mar 29
Cavo Cambanos
Spain
94 95 96 97 98
1977 1975 1967 1975 1993
Aug 10 Jan 12 Sep Apr 4 Mar 6
Turkey South Africa
99 100
1968 1976
Nov 3 Feb 16
USSR 1 Master Stathios R.C. Stoner Spartan Lady Omsk-Irkutsk pipeline Spyros Lemos Nan Yang
101 102
1967 1985
Oct Nov 6
103 104
1991 1983
Jul 21 Nov 26
105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112
1970 1980 1968 1980 1966 1979 1970 1983
Apr 17 Jan 16 May 5 Mar 7 Feb 25 Mar 2 Jan 31 Nov 17
113 114 115
1976 1976 1965
116 117 118 119 120
1970 1981 1969 1976 1990
Giorgio Fassio Ray Richley well blowout Kirki PNOC Basilan
North Sea
Tons (X103) 27
Ireland Bantry Bay North East Atlantic Nigeria off Forcados
27 27 26
USA Japan Indonesia
26 25 24
USA Russia Spain Hong Kong Angola USA Australia Philipines
Jun 30 Oct 4 Aug 30
Silver Ocean Salem Andron Tanio Ann Mildred Brovig Messiniaki Frontis Gezina Brovig Storage tank - Shell refinery Al Dammam LSCO Petrochem Arsinoe
Greece USA Philipines
Nov 1 Nov 21 Jan 28 May 26 Jun 8
Marlena Globe Assimi Oil well blowout Storage tank Mega Borg
Italy Lithuania USA USA USA
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Location
South Africa Senegal South Africa France Germany Greece USA Singapore
Nantucket, MA Philippine Sea Strait of Malacca Gothenburg Madeira South China Sea Off Louisiana Schuylkill River, Pa Mediterranean Sea Bosporus Strait Indian Ocean North Pacific Atlantic Ocean West Siberia Vigo South China Sea Atlantic Ocean Ranger, TX Cervantes South China Sea Durban Atlantic Ocean Cape Town Brittany North Sea Crete Puerto Rico Puleu Bukom Agiol Theodoroi Off Louisiana South China Sea Sicily Klaipeda Santa Barbara Hackensack, NJ Gulf of Mexico
24 24 23 22 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 19 19 18 18 17 17 17 16 16 16 16 15 15 15 15 15 15 14 14 13 13
Table 1
Major Spills (Continued)
No.
Year
Month/ Day
121
1971
Dec 2
122 123 124 125
1966 1999 1975 1980
Oct Dec 12 Mar 26 Oct 2
126
1984
127
Ship/Incident
Country
Oct 31
Laban Island well blowout Malmohus Erika Tarik Ibn Ziyad Offshore platform Hasbah 6 Puerto Rican
1975
Jan 6
Showa Maru
Malaysia
128 129 130 131 132
1983 1987 1971 1987 1979
Jan 7 Jun 23 Jun 1 Jul 29 Jan 1
USA France USA USA Venezuela
133 134 135 136 137
1978 1978 1988 1989 1974
Feb 8 Jan 9 Oct 10 Oct 4 Oct 10
Storage tank Fuyoh Maru Santa Augusta Blue Ridge Corpoven well blowout Storage tank Brazilian Marina Century Dawn Pacificos Trojan
138
1977
Nov 2
139 140
1979 1975
Apr 5 Nov 12
141 142 143
1978 1974 1978
Dec 25 Sep 25 Jan 31
144 145 146 147
1990 1996 1972 1990
Jun 20 Nov 23 Aug 21 Aug 6
148 149
1984 1970
Jul 30 Feb 10
150
1972
Sep 6
151 152 153
1978 1970 1970
May 6 Feb 4 Dec 1
154
1987
155 156
1994 1972
Matsushima Maru No. 3 Fortune Olympic Alliance Kosmas M. Eleftheria Storage tank transfer loss Storage tank Storage tank Oswego Guardian Sea Spirit
Location
Tons (X103)
Iran
Persian Gulf
13
Tanzania France Brazil Saudia Arabia
Dar Es Salaam Bay of Biscay Rio de Janeiro Persian Gulf
13 12 12 12
USA
San Francisco, CA Strait of Malacca Newark Bay, NJ Le Havre Virgin Islands Off Florida El Tigre
12
USA Brazil Singapore South Africa Philipines Japan Singapore United Kingdom Turkey Sierra Leone USA Russia Czech Republic South Africa Gibralter
Los Angelos San Sebastiao Singapore Strait Indian Ocean South China Sea Philippine Sea
English Channel Asbas Atlantic Ocean Arthur Kill, NJ
12 11 11 11 11 11 11 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 9
USA USA
Nefteyugansk Litinov Indian Ocean Straits of Gibralter Cameron, LA Louisiana
Canada
Nipisi, Alberta
9
United Kingdom Canada USA
Norfolk Nova Scotia Louisiana
9 8 8
Oct 10
Alvenus Oil well blowout Chevron Main Pass Pipeline rupture Nipisi Eleni V Arrow Offshore platform Shell #26 Yum II/Zapoteca
Mexico
8
Mar 2 Jan 1
Oil well blowout General MC Meiggs
Uzbekistan USA
Bahia de Campeche Fergana Valley Juan de Fuca, WA
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9 9
8 8
Table 1
Major Spills (Continued)
No.
Year
Month/ Day
157
1992
Jun 1
158 159 160 161
1977 1985 1990 1968
Oct 29 Apr Jun 28 Mar 3
162 163 164 165 166
1983 1993 1972 1974 1989
Sep 27 Oct 1 Oct 25 Apr 7 Jan 16
167
1990
Dec 27
168 169 170 171 172 173 174
1997 1976 1980 1979 1997 1966 1973
Jan 18 Oct 14 Nov 22 Mar 15 Jan 2 May 15 Aug 8
175
1974
Feb 13
Ship/Incident Komineft Vozey pipeline Al-Rawdatain Southern Cross Chenki Ocean Eagle Sivand Frontier Express Barge Ocean 80 Sea Spirit UMTB American Barge 283 Kuybyshev-Perm pipeline Bona Fulmar Boehlen Georgia Kurdistan Nakhodka Fina Norvege Trinimar 327 well blowout Sea Spray
Country
Location
Tons (X103)
Russia
Izhma
8
Italy Algeria Eygpt USA
8 8 8 8
United Kingdom Korea USA USA USA
Genoa Skikda Suez Canal San Juan, Puerto Rico Humber Estuary Yellow Sea Arthur Kill, NJ Los Angeles Off Alaska
8 7 7 7 7
Russia
Cormova
7
France France USA Canada Japan Italy Venezuela
Dover Strait Atlantic Ocean Louisiana Nova Scotia Japan Sea Sardinia Guiria
7 7 7 6 6 6 6
Vietnam
South China Sea
6
Some Oil Spill Facts • About 10 million tons of oil and petroleum products are used worldwide each day. Despite the large number of oil spills, however, only a small percentage of oil used is actually spilled. • While most of the large oil spills in the marine environment are from tankers, these spills make up less than about 5% of all oil pollution entering the sea. Most oil pollution in the oceans comes from the run-off of oil and fuel from land-based sources rather than from accidental spills. • In Canada, about 12 spills of more than 4000 L are reported each day, of which only about one spill is into navigable waters. In the U.S., about 25 such spills occur each day into navigable waters and about 75 occur on land. • 30 to 50% of oil spills are directly or indirectly caused by human error, with 20 to 40% of these caused by equipment failure or malfunction. • The average cost of cleaning up oil spills worldwide varies from $20 to $200 per litre of oil spilled.
©2000 by CRC Press LLC
Photo 7
Photo 8
Oil and oiled weeds are shown here, a result of the Persian Gulf War spill, the largest spill recorded to date. (Oil Spill Response Limited)
The Haven burns off the coast of Italy. (Oil Spill Response Limited)
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Photo 9
Tugboats surround the Sea Empress — grounded and leaking oil — in an attempt to refloat the stricken tanker at high tide off the coast of England. (Oil Spill Response Limited).
©2000 by CRC Press LLC
Photo 10
The tanker Burmah Agate catches fires after colliding with another ship. (International Maritime Organization).
©2000 by CRC Press LLC
