INTRODUCTION A LA COMPRÉHENSION ÉCRITE EN ANGLAIS 1- POURQUOI LA COMPRÉHENSION ÉCRITE? En tant qu’étudiants de psychologie, vous allez être très rapidement amenés à lire des articles de recherche afin d’être au fait des évolutions et découvertes les plus récentes dans les nombreuses branches de votre spécialité. Or, ces articles sont publiés en anglais dans la presse spécialisée, et ne sont pas traduits en français ou en toute autre langue. Pourquoi? Tout simplement parce que l’on considère dans le milieu de la recherche scientifique que la compréhension de l’anglais écrit est un outil que tout étudiant se doit de maîtriser dès le début de ses études et d’améliorer tout au long de son cursus universitaire, comme certaines bases de mathématiques ou d’informatique indispensables à la compréhension de la science qu’est la psychologie. C’est la raison pour laquelle l’enseignement d’anglais durant la première année de la Licence de psychologie se concentre principalement sur les techniques de compréhension écrite. Cet enseignement sera dispensé en amphi (= un cours magistral / ‘CM’) à raison de deux heures chaque semaine pendant 12 semaines au premier semestre (ou bien au deuxième semestre selon vos choix d’enseignements optionnels). Pendant ces séances de CM votre enseignante d’anglais vous familiarisera avec le type de sujet d’examen que vous passerez à la fin des cours en décembre pour le premier semestre, ou bien fin avril-début mai pour le second.
2- QUELLE ÉVALUATION ? Votre note d’anglais pour la première année de la Licence sera celle de l’ examen terminal.
3- QUEL TRAVAIL PERSONNEL EN PARALLÈLE AU COURS D’AMPHI ? TRAVAIL PENDANT LE COURS MAGISTRAL : En amphi, votre travail consiste à prendre des notes sur les supports de CM préparés pour vous à cet effet. Votre travail consiste également à participer mentalement et souvent oralement aux exercices qui seront présentés tout au long de ces cours magistraux. Il sera parfois difficile, faute de temps, de terminer ensemble la correction de ces exercices en amphi, le polycopié de cette correction sera distribué au CM suivant par l’enseignante. Il faut également : 1- Mémoriser le cours et faire ou refaire les exercices donnés en cours ; 2- Approfondir les points de grammaire évoqués en CM à l’aide d’une grammaire comportant des exercices corrigés (cf. Essential / English Grammar in Use de Raymond Murphy ou How English Works de Michael Swan et Catherine Walter) 3- Chaque semaine, lire un des textes du fascicule (intitulé Textes d’Anglais Première Année Licence de Psychologie à retirer à l’accueil sur présentation de votre carte d’étudiant). Ce fascicule contient le ou les texte(s) qui serviront de support au sujet d’examen de décembre, il est donc dans votre intérêt de lire et travailler sérieusement ces textes. Le mieux est de travailler par groupes de 2 ou 3, selon les instructions données en début de fascicule de textes. En conclusion, selon votre niveau, il faut accorder un minimum de : une heure hebdomadaire à l’apprentissage du contenu de chaque CM car il y aura systématiquement plusieurs questions de cours aux examens.
CHAQUE SEMAINE : Assiduité au CM chaque semaine + Exercices et relecture CM + Lecture et préparation des textes d’examen = réussite assurée au partiel !!!
GOOD LUCK !
INDEX 1/ LE PROCESSUS DE LECTURE
pp. 1-11
2/ LA PHONETIQUE
pp. 12-21
3/ LA LEXICOLOGIE
pp. 22-34
4/ LE GROUPE NOMINAL
pp. 35-42
5/ LES REFERENTS
pp. 43-50
6/ LES QUANTIFIEURS
pp. 51-59
7/ LE SYSTEME VERBAL
pp. 60-68
8/ LA VOIX PASSIVE
pp. 69-75
9/ LES MODAUX
pp. 76-87
10/ LES MOTS DE LIAISON
pp. 88-94
Dsérodre Sleon une édtue de l’Uvinertisé de Cmabrigde, l’odrre des ltteers dans un mto n’a pas d’ipmrotncae, la suele coshe ipmrotnate est que la pmeirère et la drenèire soient à la bnnoe pclae. Le rsete peut êrte dans un dsérorde ttoal et vuos puoevz tujoruos lrie snas porlblème. C’est prace que le crveaveu hmauin ne lit pas chuaqe ltetre elle-mmêe, mias le mot cmome un tuot. Michel Chambon (e-mail) Telerama 4-10 octobre 2003
LE PROCESSUS DE LECTURE I/
Au fur et à mesure que vous lisez le texte suivant, remplissez le schéma du processus de lecture cidessous Reading in our first language (L1) Reading is often considered as a passive skill but research has demonstrated that it is actually a highly complex process of interaction between reader and text. In fact the reader does not decode the text in a linear fashion but rather his/her eyes move rapidly over the page, going forward and backward as groups of words are perceived and related to the reader’s own non-verbal information (his/her knowledge of the world, culture, education, personal experience and some specific knowledge of the topic of the text). Added to this, the reader also possesses linguistic competence which means a knowledge of words (lexis), of how these words are used in a linguistic system in order to form sentences (syntax), and of the rhetorical patterns and linguistic conventions which characterize different types of text (news stories, poetry and research papers are all distinct types or genres). In an ideal situation, the reader approaches a text with a real motivation to read and a reading objective. For example, using a telephone book to find the number of a restaurant or revising from a textbook to prepare for an exam or reading a novel for pleasure. S/he will also have some expectations or predictions regarding the content of the text, based on both graphic cues (headline, photographs, tables, etc.), and on his knowledge of the subject matter and how the text will probably be organised depending on its genre (a scientific article = introduction/argument, research, results, conclusion).As s/he reads, these predictions are confirmed (or not) by the text. The better the predictions, the faster the processing of the text since the mind is “prepared” for the information encountered and thus perceives meaning more readily. Depending on his/her reason for reading, the reader will use one or more specific strategies (cf. p6) i.e. to search rapidly for a telephone number or to read in detail in preparation for an exam. Being able to transfer the processing skills and strategies of L1 reading, which are largely unconscious and automatic, into a second language (L2) leads to quick, efficient and pleasurable L2 reading. Reading skills for the social sciences by Louann Haarman, Patrick Leech & Janet Murray
SCHEMA DU PROCESSUS
LECTEUR
Lexique Syntaxe
VOUS ARRIVEZ AU TEXTE !
Conventions Sens
II/ Anticiper le contenu du texte Repérages préalables:
1ð
2ð
3ð
4ð
5ð SUJET = ? PROBLEMATIQUE = ?
Regardez les textes de votre fascicule et repérer les indices co-textuels qui vous permettent d’émettre des hypothèses quant au sujet et à la problématique du texte. Texte N°
:
Texte N°
:
Texte N°
:
III/ STRATEGIES DE LECTURE A/ Les différents modes de lecture 1 SKIMMING
2 SCANNING
3 INTENSIVE READING 4 EXTENSIVE READING
D’autres stratégies plus spécifiques sont utilisées de façon inconsciente lorsqu’on lit dans sa langue maternelle. Cependant, il faut utiliser ces stratégies consciemment en anglais si la compréhension n’est pas immédiate ! EXERCICE 1 SKIMMING TO FIND INFORMATION Voici cinq thèmes : whales the greenhouse effect
education
coal
dieting
Survolez le plus rapidement possible chacun des petit textes ci-dessous afin de trouver lequel correspond à chaque thème. Vous n’avez pas besoin de lire chaque texte entièrement ! Vous pouvez souligner les mots clefs.
1- Education no longer ends with the first day of school. Today you can enjoy the challenges and benefits of learning at any time. The Open University offers a lifelong opportunity to continue your education. You choose your level and subjects and we fit into your life. Your age, occupation and background do not matter. You just have to be 18 and over and living in the UK. 2- According to many doctors diets are not only a waste of time but they can also be dangerous. These doctors are now advising anybody who wants to lose weight to consult their doctors first. They also suggest that about 20 minutes mild exercise 3 or 4 times a week is a lot better for most people than a diet. 3- The atmosphere is a blanket of gases round the Earth. For a long time these gases have kept the planet’s temperature at about 15°. How? By trapping some of the sun’s heat. But now, because of pollution, there are too many gases in the atmosphere. The result of this is that the earth is getting hotter. A greenhouse becomes hot for much the same reason. That’s why this problem of earth’s rising temperature is called the Greenhouse Effect by many scientists. 4- The energy in fossil fuels came from the sun thousands of years ago. First it was stored by plants. Then the plants died. After that, some of this dead matter was slowly turned into coal, gas and oil. 5- In November 1988, three Californian grey whales became stuck under the ice near Alaska. America and Russia spent over one million dollars trying to free them. One of them died but the other two, ‘Crossbeak’ and ‘Bonnet’ escaped to clear water.
EXERCICE 2
SCANNING TEXTS FOR INFORMATION Les trois paragraphes ci-dessous traitent du même thème : les échecs. Lisez d’abord les cinq questions ci-dessous puis lisez les passages très rapidement afin de répondre à ces questions :
1/ Where does the word “ chess ” come from ? …………………………………………………….. 2/ How many players can play ?
……………………………………………………..
3/ How many pieces are there ?
……………………………………………………..
4/ How many squares are there on a board ?
…….……………………………………………....
5/ How is the game finished ?
……………………………………………………..
1/ Chess has as many names as countries it is played in, but scholars think the English word ‘chess’ comes from the ancient Persian (Iranian) word ‘shah’, meaning ‘king’. Chess is a game of skill for two players or groups, played with men which are moved on a 64squared board. This game has been and still is the subject of many books. Originally it was a recreation but through the interest of intellectuals and mathematicians, through the ages it has become almost a science. The game itself is not difficult - many children play it very well- but to become very good is very difficult indeed and requires many years of practice.
2/ Chess is a game for two players who face each other across a square board divided into 64 smaller squares. Each row of eight squares leading from one player to their opponent is called a file. Each row of eight squares across the board is called a rank ; and each slanted line is called a diagonal. The squares in each rank and file are alternately light and dark in colour and are referred to as either black or white squares. The chessmen ( or pieces) are also of contrasting colour, the white (or light) ones being controlled by one player, the black (or dark) ones, by their opponent. Each player has 16 pieces consisting of one king, one queen, two rooks or castles, two bishops, two knights and eight pawns. Each of these pieces has a distinctive shape and a special way of moving.
3/ Chess is a game from antiquity, played by two players on a board of 64 squares alternating black and white. Each player has 16 pieces, the one side white and the other side black or red. Reading from the white square on the player’s right, they are : King’s rook or castle, King’s Knight, King’s bishop, King, Queen, Queen’s bishop, Queen’s rook. In front of these is a line of pawns. The aim of the game is to force the King of the opposite side into a position where he can neither move nor remain without the danger of being ‘taken’ by another piece. If this happens the King is called “ Check ”! If the King cannot be removed out of “ Check ” then the game is lost. Each of these pieces can move only in a particular way.
B/ AMELIORER VOTRE VITESSE DE LECTURE 1) Que pensez-vous des affirmations suivantes ? Cochez la cas correspondant à votre réponse. Vrai Faux 1 On doit lire un mot à la fois. 2 En lisant vite, on ne peut pas comprendre ce qu’on lit. 3 En lisant vite, on mémorise plus facilement. 4 Chaque individu possède une vitesse moyenne de lecture à laquelle on doit se tenir. 5 On ne doit jamais sauter de paragraphes ni de pages. 6 Quand on ne comprend pas un mot, il faut immédiatement recourir au dictionnaire.
1) Lisez le texte suivant, à votre rythme habituel, et arrêtez-vous au bout de 1 minute. 2) Cochez l’endroit où vous êtes arrêtez et continuez à lire jusqu’à la fin du texte. 3) Comptez le nombre de mots que vous avez lus, ceci correspond à votre vitesse de lecture en anglais. 4) Répondez ensuite aux questions sans revenir au texte.
NB ‘Fixation’ = les pauses effectuées par nos yeux au cours de la lecture One advantage for faster readers is that their eye will be doing less physical work on each page. Rather than having as many as 500 fixations tightly focused per page as do slow readers, they will have as few as 100 fixations per page, each one of which is less muscularly fatiguing. Another advantage is that the rhythm and flow of faster readers will carry them comfortably through the meaning, whereas slow readers, because of their stopping and starting, jerky approach, will be far more likely to become bored, to lose concentration, to mentally drift away and to lose the meaning of what they are reading. It is clear that a number of commonly held myths about faster reading are false: w People often feel that words should be read one at a time but this is false. This is because of our ability to fixate and also because we read for meaning rather than for single words. w Reading faster than 500 wpm is often thought to be impossible but this too is false. The fact that we can take in as many as six words per fixation and the fact that we can make four fixations a second means that speeds of 1,000 wpm are perfectly feasible. w Another myth is that faster readers are not able to appreciate what they are reading. This is wrong because faster readers will be understanding more of the meaning of what they read, they will be concentrating on the material more and will have considerably more time to go back over areas of special interest and importance to them. w It is also false to say that higher speeds give lower concentration because the faster we go, the more impetus we gather and the more we concentrate. w Finally, it is incorrect to suppose that average reading speeds are natural and therefore the best. Average reading speeds are not natural. They are speeds produced by an incorrect initial training in reading, combined with an inadequate knowledge of how the eye and brain work at the various speeds possible. Most reading is done at a relaxed, almost lackadaisical pace, a fact of which many speed reading courses have taken advantage. Students are given various exercises and tasks and it is suggested to them that after each exercise their speed will increase by 10-20wpm. And so it does, often by as much as 100 per cent over the duration of the lessons. The increase, however, is often due, not to the exercises, but to the fact that the students motivation has often been stimulated little by little during the course. Motivation is therefore the major factor, and the reader will benefit enormously by consciously applying it to each learning experience. If a deep-rooted decision is made to do better, then poor performance will automatically improve. Article by Tony Buzan, adapted from “English Panorama1” p.56
/478 mots
Why read quickly? 1) Why is it an advantage to read quickly? a) You will finish the task quicker and be able to answer comprehension questions better. b) Fewer fixations means less physical work for the eyes. c) The faster it works the more efficient the brain is. 2) Why do slow readers understand less? a) With their constant stopping and starting the text becomes boring and they lose concentration. b) Slower readers are necessarily less intelligent. c) Reading slowly does not allow the brain to assimilate information satisfactorily. 3) Why do we read? a) In order to understand single words b) In order to understand grammar c) For meaning 4) How many words can be assimilated per fixation? a) 2 b) 4 c) 6 d) 8 5) How many fixations can we make per second ? a) 2 b) 4 c) 6
d) 8
6) Why do faster readers appreciate what they are reading better? a) They understand more of the meaning and have more time to go back and read important points. b) Faster readers are more intelligent. c) They are able to read more and thus have greater general knowledge. 7) Why do higher speeds give higher concentration? a) Reading faster increases adrenaline which helps concentration. b) The faster we read the more interested and motivated we are and the more we concentrate. c) The brain stimulates concentration when working quicker. 8) Why are average reading speeds not natural? a) They make readers lose concentration and misunderstand information. b) They are the result of laziness and ignorance. c) They are produced by an incorrect initial training and misunderstanding of how the eye and brain work. 9) What is one of the most important factors in reading faster? a) Intelligence b) Motivation c) Bilingualism RESULTATS Comment calculer la compréhension/mémorisation? Attribuer-vous un point par réponse exacte.
/9
Comment calculer l’efficacité de lecture? L’efficacité permet d’établir une relation entre la vitesse et la compréhension. Multiplier le score de vitesse par le score de compréhension et diviser par 9 (il y a 9 questions) Ex: Vous lisez 355 mots à la minute, vous avez 6 réponses exactes. Votre efficacité est: 355 x 6 = 266 9 Mon score Points de repère pour la vitesse de lecture : Vitesse : mots/minute Lecteur lent : moins de 200 mots/minute Compréhension/mémorisation : Lecteur moyen : 240 mots/minute Efficacité : Lecteur rapide : à partir de 400 mots/minute
Lisez le texte suivant en essayant de mettre en œuvre les conseils précédents (anticipation du contenu du texte, stratégies de lecture, lecture rapide)
Fact and reading fiction by Michael Moreland, The Guardian §1- The notion that reading is one of the most important keys to educational success is agreed by all: newspaper critics, devoted teachers and parents. But what is happening to standards? §2 - Employers are critical: “It is a great surprise and disappointment to us that our young employees are so hopelessly deficient in their command of English.” Many long for the golden days, but that quotation was from those days – 1921! The complaints of today are remarkably like those of the past. §3 – The latest panic was prompted by a very limited study by a group of educational psychologists using a dubious test. No wonder it was castigated for intellectual sloppiness. Yet there are many detailed research studies that illuminate reading problems. In May it was shown that the more lead, aluminium or zinc in a child’s body as tested by hair or saliva tests, the lower the reading scores. Did that get widely reported? §4 – Other research focused on left and right-handedness. Fascinatingly, the researchers found that there is a connection between reading skills and skill with the use of the left or right hands: children with either a very strong right, or a very strong left-hand skill are likely to have poorer reading skills. Did that get widely reported? §5 – The same fears are repeated often: “But are they being taught to read?” The worries appear to be misdirected. Yes, there are serious doubts about whether the present curriculum is helping effective reading, but it is not the early stages that are weak. Nor is it, contrary to much printed panic, because of too little teaching of phonics. It is because we stop developing reading skills except in the teaching of literature. We are extraordinarily good at teaching fiction. Reading for learning is something different but equally important. This is how we grapple with ideas, arguments and the discourse of Higher Education. §6 – Fiction, marvellous as it is as an art form, is poor training for the reading of non-narrative. The story carries the reader along and stimulates the understanding of the text without too much conscious effort. When those pupilreaders hit a text explaining facts or arguments, they expect the same thing to work and are disappointed and baffled when it does not. §7 – This is partly due to sentence length and structure: the average sentence in fiction (according to one US computer analysis) is as low as 11 words, whereas in learned and scientific writing sentences average 21 words. They are often of a different structure to those in stories, with far more subordinate clauses. The paragraphs are also different: fiction keeps rolling. Non-fiction writing has ideas followed by arguments, followed by examples, before returning to a second argument. Seeing the structure of a non-narrative paragraph is to see the pattern of the argument and reading fiction will not help a pupil develop this skill. §8 – The words used are equally different. In the articulation of argument, “signal” or “link” words are very important: however, despite, accordingly, although, since, while etc. Those last two confuse pupils. They have met them mostly as words concerned with time. In non-narrative, however, they demonstrate the argument. §9 – The key conceptual words are often derived from Latin or Greek, and our curriculum rarely gives access to even a modest understanding of their meanings and sentence patterns. Science and medicine inhabit a worldwide “constructed” vocabulary, derived from the ancient western world. The relationship between the spelling of words like “haematology” and how young people come to pronounce them requires further study. §10 – What is certain is that our pupils will not have access to higher education without specific reading tuition in non-narrative. From primary to secondary, all our curriculum plans require a clear thread or reading tuition. §11 – Most reading for learning is non-fiction; our best higher reading teaching is through literature. It is this mismatch between need and offer that is at the heart of the difficulties of learning to read and reading to learn. The reading aspect of the curriculum starts well but needs development and broadening during a pupil’s education.
Comprehension 1) Subject of the article = 2) Argument = 3) Why students find reading so difficult: Explanations =
4) Differences between fiction and non-fiction reading =
5) Solutions =
C/ LE LEXIQUE Did you know...? 1ð
2ð
3ð
4ð
ðAttention …
a/ Bien lire ne veut pas dire “ comprendre chaque mot ” Imaginez que vous parcourez un article dans lequel la plupart des mots vous sont inconnus. Voici ceux que vous comprenez : Institute of biochemistry published different results
hard-working man confession fraud
results of experiments invention regrets it
Pouvez-vous deviner, à partir de ces fragments, si l’article parle de : ¨ un professeur célèbre qui vient de publier ses confessions ¨ un scientifique qui a reconnu avoir inventé les résultats de ses expériences ¨ un scientifique qui s’est suicidé parce qu’il n’obtenait pas les mêmes résultats que les autres ¨ un scientifique qui regrette la publication des résultats de ses expériences. Pourquoi les autres propositions ne conviennent-elles pas?
b/ Comment gérer au mieux le vocabulaire Lorsque vous êtes face à un mot que vous ne connaissez pas et qui vous empêche de continuer à lire ou de comprendre le texte, utilisez la technique suivante afin de ne pas perdre de temps. 1ð 2ð 3ð 4ð 5ð Utilisez le dictionnaire seulement en DERNIER recours
Lexique : Mise en Oeuvre I/ Comment deviner le sens des mots inconnus : utiliser le contexte. En français : Devinez quels sont les mots manquants dans l’article suivant; identifiez les moyens que vous avez utilisés, évaluez vos hypothèses dans le tableau. Ce ..................... (1) est un best seller pour enfants ................................ (2) par une jeune ............................ (3) de nationalité britannique. Le ....................................... (4) est un jeune garçon qui ................... (5) un jour qu’il possède des ...................................... (6) magiques. Nature grammaticale
Indice grammatical (‘morphèmes grammaticaux’)
Indice sémantique (syntaxe et fonction)
Hypothèse
1 2 3 4 5 6
En anglais Cette fois, les mots à deviner ont été inventés, mais ressemblent à de vrais mots en cela qu’ils donnent des indices grâce à leurs terminaisons. This series of smurfs (a), of which 5 volumes exist today, has smurfen (b) international publishing records all over the world. Young smurfers (c) are excited by the new fashion which has made smurfing (d) almost as popular as video-games. What’s more, last year’s film adaptation was a Christmas block-buster enjoyed by smurfs (e) and children alike. Nature grammaticale
a b c d e
Indice grammatical (‘morphèmes grammaticaux’)
Indice sémantique (syntaxe et fonction)
Hypothèse
II/ Comment deviner le sens des mots inconnus : utiliser la relation entre les mots. Les catégories de relation entre le mot et le contexte sont les suivantes : 1- équivalence : il y a un synonyme dans la phrase (ou le texte) 2- contraste : avec un antonyme situé à proximité 3- cause : on peut deviner le sens du mot car il exprime la cause de quelque chose qui est décrit dans le texte. 4- conséquence le mot décrit la conséquence de quelque chose. 5- utilité : le mot décrit un objet dont l’utilité est décrite dans le texte. 6- explication / illustration : le sens d’un mot est expliqué, ou un exemple est donné. EXERCICE 3 Lisez les phrases suivantes et essayez de deviner le sens du mot en majuscules. En tenant compte de la liste ci-dessus, notez comment vous avez deviné le sens. 1) It’s because of her FEAR of heights that she can’t go up tall buildings or climb trees . Fear = …..………………………………. Un exemple de : ………………………………. 2) DISEASES and ILLNESSES such as cancer, tuberculosis and diphtheria are present in both the first and third worlds. Diseases & illnesses = …..………………………. Un exemple de : ………………………………. 3) The BRAKES on the car were old and therefore it was difficult to stop, especially when the roads were wet. Brakes = …………………………………………. Un exemple de : ………………………………. 4) John is very SELFISH, unlike Paul who’s very generous. Selfish = …………………………………………. Un exemple de : ………………………………. 5) She’s so CLEVER. In fact, she’s the most intelligent person I’ve ever met. Clever = ………………………………………. Un exemple de : …………………………….… 6) A PEELER is usually used to take the skin off fruit or vegetables. Peeler = ………………………………………. Un exemple de : …………………………….…
D/ EXPLICATION DU TEXTE PAR LE TEXTE (définitions, exemples, reformulation, explications)
@
EXERCICE 4 Lisez les phrases suivantes puis remplissez le tableau ci-dessous. Attention, certaines phrases ne comportent pas de reformulation/ explication/ exemples (dans ce cas, il n'y a rien à remplir). 1) The concept has been criticised as being tautological — that is, circular in its reasoning — and we should examine that accusation. 2) The Hanunoo recognise four non-biological components of the environment: daga, "ground, soil, earth"; batu, "rock, stone"; danum, "water, liquid"; and lanit "sky". 3) Exchange marriage, in which two men marry each other's sister, is often found. 4) The Greek marriage was monogamous — men and women were allowed only one spouse at a time. 5) Many societies, however, practice different kinds of polygamy, or multiple marriages. 6) Nearly a decade ago, Hirsch vaulted into the leadership of the traditionalist movement when he published a best-selling — and controversial — book, Cultural Literacy. 7) If a child makes consistent errors in using non-verbal language, such as standing too close when talking to someone or talking too loud or soft, other children will see them as strange and to be avoided. 8) In one test, he or she is videotaped while making an expression to communicate the emotion for a hypothetical situation, like receiving a long-wanted birthday present. 9) In another test, the child watches 40 slides of children and adults, rating their expressions as happy, sad, angry and so on. 10) Since most emotional messages between people are communicated nonverbally — by a gesture or tone of voice, say — the inability to read or send such messages adeptly is a major social handicap. Phrase N°
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Mots expliqués ou reformulés
Explication, exemple, reformulation
Introducteur
