Association Agr'eau http://agr.eau.free.fr ENSA 2 Promotion 153
THE CYPRIOT AGRICULTURE FACING WATER MANAGEMENT PROBLEMS
ATP 2003-2004
SUMMARY
The Republic of Cyprus is characterised by a semi-arid mediterranean climate. Rainfalls are scarce and not equally distributed in space and time. This point entails a water scarcity, which is getting worse because of climatic changes. Agriculture, which is economically important for the island, is the first activity to suffer from this issue. Irrigation has been developped so as to satisfy crops water requirements. First, groundwater was widely pumped, but, quickly, seawater intrusions appeared in these aquifers. As a consequence, dam construction policy was strenghtened and associated with other works aiming at distributing water to the different users. Then, water quantity management policies were set up, such as tarification, water distribution to farmers, and subsidies to promote efficient irrigation systems. These policies, which are supposed to be sustainable, have their limits : for instance, there is a lack of communication between the various departments involved. Harmonisation with European Union regulations seems also to be a new resource management stake for the Republic of Cyprus.
1 – Geographical and historical presentation of Cyprus 1.1 - Geographical and economical situation 1.1.1 – A Mediterranean island 1.1.2 – A singular geology and a mixed relief 1.1.3 – A semi-dry climate 1.1.4 – Some limited water ressources 1.1.5 – The agriculture, an important sector in Cypriot economy 1.2 – There is a whole history attached to the water management
2 – Water current management 2.1 - Devices of water collect and distribution 2.1.1 – Dams setting 2.1.1
- Water distribution
2.2 - Agricultural water management policy 2.2.1 - Scientific basis of water management policies 2.2.1.1 – Determination of crop hydrous needs 2.2.1.2 - Irrigation 2.2.2 – Several policies to reason the use of water resource 2.2.3 – How to allocate more water to farmers ?
3 – Management of water on the island : limits and prospects 3.1 – Resource management : structural limits and contradictions 3.1.1 – Coordination and cooperation problems between competent organisms 3.1.2 – A public awareness in a subdued style 3.1.3 – Farmers : between awareness and sensibility
3.2 - Agriculture and tourism : two hard-to-conciliate economical activities 3.2.1 - Economy and tradition : two reconciling notions 3.2.2 - Tourism : one of the island’s main dilemma
3.3 – Ecological impacts of past and actual water management policies 3.3.1 - Salinisation of aquifer 3.3.2 - Dams 3.3.3 – Desalinisation plants
3.4 – Future and entrance in European Union 3.4.1 Mediterranean and European plans 3.4.2. Water: The main stake for Cypriot business 3.4.3. The Water Framework Directive
CONCLUSION REFERENCES THANKS
INTRODUCTION The necessity of managing water is more and more emphasized on the world scale. In countries where this resource is limited, this management is a more important stake. Mediterranean countries are part of those concerned. Indeed, they are characterised by semiarid climate: rainfall is irregular during the whole year, which causes dry periods, especially dominant at the South and the East of the Mediterranean Sea. Cyprus is under the influence of this Mediterranean climate. Moreover, climate changing (increase of temperatures and decrease rainfall) make the situation worse. On an other hand, due to its insular status, the only source of water comes from rainfall. Still, there is no permanent river on the island. Cyprus is thus confronted with problems of water shortage. Cypriot authorities had elaborated a water management program to be able to go on satisfying people, industries, tourism and, of course, agricultural needs. In Cyprus, this sector is indeed economically greater than in other Mediterranean islands. Most of the crops of the country needs to be irrigated. Agriculture alone consumes more than 75 % of the whole quantity of water used every year on the island. Moreover, the Cypriot government wants to show its will to go in agricultural development at the same time as its entry in the European Union (May 2004). European policies insist more and more on sustainable concept. In 1987, the World Commission for Environment and Development, also called the Commission Bruntland, had tried to definite sustainable development and this definition is now admitted by the entire world. This development may “allow each people living nowadays to satisfy their needs without compromising the possibilities of future generations”. We wish to undertake a study of the Cypriot authorities manners to conciliate agricultural development and shortage of water, and their results. This study will be influenced by sustainable concepts. That is why it was interesting to broach not only technical aspects of water management but also policy stakes, points of view of various actors and resulting in the confrontation of several ideas, to have a vision as objective as possible. Thus, we have met several local actors, from farmers to government representatives and, of course, several engineers. After a short presentation of Cyprus, we will present and explain solutions proposed by government to face water shortage. Finally, we will broach in the third part the limits of present day water management policies and prospects for Cyprus due to its entry in the European Union.
Note: Due to the political situation on the island, only the Republic of Cyprus was accessible (South of the island). Our study was done solely in this only area. That is why words such as “Cyprus” and “island” will always refer to the Republic of Cyprus.
1- GEOGRAPHICAL AND HISTORICAL PRESENTATION OF CYPRUS 1.1 - Geographical and economical situation 1.1.1 – A Mediterranean island Cyprus is a Mediterranean island located in the south of Turkey, as we can see on Picture 1. It is the third most important in the Mediterranean (after Sicily and Sardinia). It extends over 5,895 Km2. The surface fresh water represents only 10 Km2.[1].
Cyprus
Picture 1 : Cyprus situation in Europe The population totals 700,000 Km2 inhabitants and the density is 113.6 inhabitants/ Km2. Nicosia, the capital, and Limassol are the largest cities and have more than 100.000 inhabitants. Picture 2 represents the main urban areas. The majority of the population is located on the coast, where the principal touristic areas are located.
Picture 2 : Localisation of the main urban areas and motorways of Cyprus From Guide du Routard 1.1.2 – A singular geology and a mixed relief As we can see in Picture 3, in Cyprus there is a chain of mountains, the Troodos, which is surrounded by some coastal plains.
Picture 3 : Topography of Cyprus From WDD, 2002
Considering geology (Picture 4), the Troodos mountains are exceptional. This region is composed of metamorphic rocks (ultramal of gabbro) non porous but with joints. Ophiolitics rocks are also found . These rocks come from the bottom of the Tethys. They had been propelled when the African and the European plates collited.[19]. Around the Troodos there are Tertiary sedimentary rocks. These are limestone and therefore permeable. Along the coast some alluvium areas are found. They are also permeable.
Picture 4 : Geographical card of Cyprus From http://www.protonique.com/cyprus_water/, 07/03 1.1.3 – A semi-dry climate The Mediterranean climate is characterised by hot and dry summers (average temperature in July and August: 26 to 29°C) and by mild and humid winters (average temperature in January: 10 to 13°C). In the mountains, it is possible to observe mild weather during summer and snowfall during winter. Cyprus is the hottest Mediterranean island and Nicosia is the town which has highest average temperature: 19.5°C).[23] During the year, the rainfall s irregularly distributed: often abundant in autumn-winter, and rate during summer. That is why there are regularly periods of drought. The annual rainfall is about 500 mm, 80% of which is directly lost by evapotranspiration. This precipitation varies from 300-350 in the central plain to 1,100mm at the Troodos top ( Picture 5). Thus these mountains are the main humid areas of this island.
Picture 5 : Distribution of mean annual precipitations From WDD, 2002 However, during the 100 last years, climate changes have been observed : a decrease in rainfall (1mm/ year) (Picture 6) and an increase in temperature (0.5°C/10 years since 70’s) (Pictures 7 and 8).
Picture 6 : Evolution of average annual rainfalls (1987 to 2000). From WDD, 2002
Picture 7 : Evolution of average temperatures (1901 to 1991). From http://www.protonique.com/cyprus_water/, 07/03
Regional st andardised annual precipit at ion
3
2
m 1 + s1 1
m 2 + s2
m1 0
m2
m 1 - s1 -1
m 2 - s2
-2 Hydrological years -3 1915
1925
1935
1945
1955
1965
1975
1985
1995
2005
Picture 8 : Evolution of average temperatures (1915 à 2005). From WDD, 2002 1.1.4 – Some limited water ressources There are no permanent rivers in Cyprus. Because of climatic changes, the flow of the rivers has decreased from 35 to 50% in comparison with the estimations made in 1970. As we can see in Picture 9, there are 4 main aquifers: Morfou, Kokkinochoria, Kiti-Pervolia et Akrotiri.
Picture 9 : Distribution of the aquifers. From WDD, 2002 Because of its insularity, Cyprus depends entirely on precipitation for its water resources. Thus, in 1970, the total water reserve was estimated at 900 million m3 per year, of which 300 came from aquifers and 600 from surface water. But climatic changes have brought a decrease in about 40% of natural water resources compared to the evaluations made in 1970.[14]. 1.1.5 – The agriculture, an important sector in Cypriot economy The part of services in the economy represents 75.5% of the GDP , the part of industry 19.9% and the part of agriculture 4.6%. [14]. Thus, the tourism sector is an important source of income in Cyprus; 2,000,000 tourists came in 1997, which is the triple of the local population (700,000 inhabitants) [22]. In spite of decrease in the role of agriculture in the GPD, this sector is still fundamental in the economy. Indeed the production of food intended for local population and exportation represents 34% of total exportations [12]. Moreover, this sector hires thousands of inhabitants (10% of the working population and many secondary jobs) in rural areas and makes it possible to limit depopulation of villages. Cyprus is the Mediterranean island which has the largest agricultural sector. Comparatively, Maltese agriculture represents 3% of the national GDP. [22]. The standard of living is high and the unemployment rate is low (3% in 1997). The GDP (about $13,000 per inhabitant) [23] is higher than in other Mediterranean countries. In comparison the GDP of Malta was $9,330 per inhabitant and in Greece, it was $11,649 per inhabitant.[22].
There are 51,000 farms with an average surface of 3.5 hectares. Agriculture is often considered as a complement of income. Although the environment is unfavourable, this sector is considerable. Therefore, irrigation is needed for most of the production: citrus fruit, potatoes, grapes, bananas… [22]. However, some crops are not irrigated: cereal, carobs… In the plains, cereal (wheat and barley), vegetables, potatoes and citrus are mainly produced. Olive trees grow everywhere but essentially on the slopes facing the sea. Vineyards are located in most of south and west slopes of the Troodos mountains. Fruit trees are cultivated in fertile valleys. Sheep and goats are bred. The Picture 10 shows the main productions of agriculture and their tonnage. Thus, potatoes are the first crops and then grapes and citrus fruit. The production of milk is the major animal production. [11].
Tonnage of main vegetable productions in 1998
Tonnage of main animal production in 1998
160 000
160 000
140 000
140 000
120 000
120 000
100 000 80 000
100 000
60 000
80 000
40 000
60 000
20 000
40 000
0 W he a Ba t r Po ley ta To toe m s at oe M s C elo uc um n be G r ra Ag pe ru m e Ap s Ba ples na na O s liv es
20 000 0 pork
chicken
beef
milk
Picture 10 : Main Cypriot productions in 1998 From http://www.senat.fr Irrigation consumes more than 75% of the water quantity used every year (Picture 11). The government of Cyprus wants to increase the quantity of water intended for agriculture in order to follow agricultural development (55% of water used in agriculture is subsidized by the government). (Picture 12).
Water Dem and by Sector and anticipated sources used for the year 2000
Groundwater 200
Surface water
AGRICULTURE 182.4 MCM
Springs
DOMESTIC 67.4 MCM
INDUSTRY 3.5 MCM
Desalination ENVIRONMENT 12.5 MCM
180 160
Million m3 / year
140
Surface Water 82 MCM
120 100 80 60 40
Groundw ater 100.4 MCM
Desalination 33.5 MCM 3.5 14.5 MCM
20
16 MCM 0 Agriculture
Domestic
3.5 MCM Industry
5 MCM 7.5 MCM Environment
Picture 11 : Distribution of water. From WDD, 2002 Distribution of Agricultural Water Demand
Areas Outside the Government Water Schemes 41%
Animal Husbandry 4% Major Government Water Schemes 55%
Picture 12 : Distribution of water in agricultural sector. From WDD, 2002 The main aims of agricultural policies: -
increasing production and productivity
-
improving of farmers’ standard of living
-
encouragement of sustainable development by considering environmental
conservation
-
keeping a market balance of agricultural products
-
harmonisation with the CAP
1.2 – There is a whole history attached to the water management ● During the twenties and thirties, the government began the exploitation of ground water which was the main source of water for irrigation and domestic uses. When the Cypriot Republic was pronounced (1960), there were hundreds of drillings everywhere on the island. Because of this excessive pumping, there was a decrease in the level of aquifers particularly in some areas: Famagusta, Morfou and Akrotiri. This decrease triggered intrusion of salt water. So, harnessings were polluted and unusable. The water issue was considered early by authorities who created short and long term programs (Water Development Program…), with the help of international organisations. Numerous technico-economic studies (Cyprus Water Master Plan, 1970) were undertaken and dams were built (Pomos, Agia Marina, Argaka, Lefkara, Yermasoyia, Polemidia, and Mavrokolymbos). At that time, the water demand of villages was satisfied. The slogan of the government was then: “Not a drop of water to sea”. Today, thanks to these policies the total storage capacity of dams is about 325.5 million m3 of water, compared to 6 million in 1960. However, some groundwater resources are still exploited today, though there are still salanity problems. [8].
Picture 13 : Two countries for one island From WDD, 2002
● In 1974, the agricultural sector was seriously affected by Turkish invasion. The Turkish strength transferred the Greek population who lost 46% of its crops. Despite the concentration of population in the less productive part of the island, investment and irrigation reactivated the agricultural sector. Projects of dams in the north of the island, whose aim was to transfer water from the North to the South, were abandoned. Nowadays, the occupation of the northern part of Cyprus is still responsible for problems in the agricultural sector, for example as far as the development of water resources is concerned. (Picture 13). [8] ● The global climatological change is responsible for an inversion of cycle dry years-humid years. Indeed, currently we can observe 3 humid years out of 10, compared to 3 dry years out of 10 a few years ago. Thus, the quantities of surface water that are available today in the island are 40% less than those that were estimated to be available prior to 1970 (Cyprus Water Master Plan). Indeed, temperature and evapotranspiration, that is today, the water supply of plants, have increased. The rainfall has decreased and is more concentred [2] which causes some issues in water storage management. The available quantities of water were then not adequate. As a result, restrictions of the supply of water have been applied during the last years, with adverse effects on the agricultural sector, the social life and the economy of the country in general. In order to face the situation, some systems of redistribution from the most humid areas to the most dry ones have been installed. Therefore, the main projects are: - the Southern Conveyor Project, which constitutes the largest hydraulic building of Cyprus. Its aims is the inter-area transfer of water resources (cf. Part 2). - the Pitsilia Integrated Rural Development Project which allowed the construction of roads and helped educational and health services. Ones of the targets of this project was to limit the rural exodus by offering jobs in hundreds mountains villages. The building of 2 small dams and 19 reservoirs have doubled the irrigated surface area to represent 1,500 h of fruit trees and vegetables in this area. - the Paphos Irrigation Project made it possible to irrigate 5,000 ha at the south-east of the Republic of Cyprus thanks to the construction of Asprokremmos dam. - the Vassilikos-Pentaskinos Project which allowed the transfer of 7 million m3 per year to Larnaca, Nicosia and the area of Famagusta. This water comes from 2 dams which collect the surface water in the Troodos mountains and which is used to irrigate vegetables and citrus fruit near towns. [10].
Moreover, in order to face the situation, desalination units were constructed in order to render the water supply of the major residential and tourist centres independent from rainfall. On the 1st April 1997, the first desalinationunit at Dhkelia started its operation, whereas in April 2001 the second desalination unit started operating close to Larnaca airport. These units were built 10 years before the initial predictions [8]. The Larnaca airport unit, which is the biggest water project in Cyprus as regards desalination, in addition with the Dhekelia unit, produces 33MCM of water every year. The government water policy is not limited to the subject of desalinations, but also focuses on the exploitation of other untraditional sources of water, such as recycled water, the use of which releases equal quantities of good water. Recycled water, which originates from the treatment of the effluent of the sewage systems, is used for the purpose of irrigation of agricultural crops and for the renewal of the underground aquifers. The first unit of water recycling was built at Limassol in 1995. ● The Republic of Cyprus entered the European Union the 1st May 2004. This new agreement requires harmonisation with the European requirements. A relevant programme which aims at the installation of central sewage systems to all residential areas with populations greater than or equal to 2,000 people has been prepared. The programme of harmonisation has to be completed by 2012. Furthermore, the adherence to E.U makes possible the participation in European programmes such as HORTIMED (sustainable use of water in horticulture in Mediterranean areas), INCO-DC (treatement of sewage water in order to be used in irrigation in harmony with sustainable practices), the N15 (fertigation for better productivity and protection of environment), and IRRISPLIT (irrigation system within sustainable agriculture).[8]. Moreover, the execution of additional water works that are parts of the plan for water development prepared for the period up to 2015, is proceeding. Within the framework of this plan, the construction of Arminou dam on Dhiarizos river has already been completed, as well as that of Tamassos dam on Pedieos river, whereas the construction of Kannaviou dam on the Ezousa river is under way. In parallel, a systematic effort is made for the reduction of the water demand with the application and the subsidization of water-saving measures and the training in awareness for the proper use of water: theis unique end precious gift of nature (cf. Annex 1).
Furthermore, the implementation of the Framework-Directive for Water, which was the result of long discussions and negotiations among the countries of the European Union, constitutes an integral part of government policy. The Framework-Directive on water inter alia: - Protects water in general (river, lake, coastaland underground). - Sets ambitious targets to ensure that all water will respond to ”good condition” by 2015. - Creates a management system on the level of river watersheds. - Requires transboundary cooperation among countries and total involvement (in the case of international areas of river watersheds). - Secures active participation of all bodies, including the non-governmental organizations and local authorities, in the activities of water management. - Secures reduction and control of pollution from all sources, such as agriculture and industrial activity. - Requires water pricing policies and ensures that the polluter pays. - It balances the interests of the environment with the interests of those who depend on it. 2 – WATER CURRENT MANAGEMENT 2.1 - Devices of water collect and distribution 2.1.1 – Dams setting Stocking water is a necessity : During the previous years, an excessive pumping in ground waters made their level decrease dangerously. Thus, saline intrusions appeared in principal aquifers and these underground resources became unusable. Therefore, alternatives had to be found. Considering the topographical and hydrographic characteristics of Cyprus, collecting and stocking surface waters appeared indispensable. As a result, Cypriots authorities, through the Water Development Department (WDD), intensified their policy of dam construction as of 1960. Thus, whereas the building of only 16 dams had been carried out between 1900 and 1960, 46 were constructed between 1960 and 1970. A colossal task was accomplished: as of now, there are 106 dams (annexe 2). So Cyprus is the European country which has the largest number of
this sort of work per km2. Henceforth, all the principal rivers are equipped with dams (Picture 14). [7 ]
Picture 14: Localisation of Dams From WDD, 2001 When Kannaviou dam is finished in the course of 2004, the total capacity of surface water stocking will reach about 325 millions of m3, whereas it was only 6.2 million m3 in the beginning of the sixties (Picture 15).
300 250 200 150 100 50
année
Picture 15: Evolution of water capacity from 1961 to 2000 From WDD, 2001
2001
1996
1991
1986
1981
1976
1971
1966
0
1961
Cumulated storage capacity (MCM)
350
A specificity of Cyprus is that all the water belongs to the Government. For that reason, it oversees and finances all the large-scale work in keeping with this resource. The sale of water to users insures a part of the financing. Dams characteristics There are 5 sorts of dams in Cyprus. The most widespread are the earthfill dams (76). Then, there are 19 gravity dams, 7 rockfill dams, 3 mixed dams and 1 archfill dam. z Earthfill dams are made up of either homogeneous soil or different soil types. They are dykes in embankment, with only one loose material which must be impermeable enough to insure watertightness and resistance. In general, the soil is set by compacting. These dams are the only ones which can be constructed on all sorts of grounds thanks to their great flexibility. Nevertheless, they support neither sudden variations in the expansion of water, nor submersion over the ridge. (Picture 16).
Picture 16: Kouris Dam From WDD, 2000
z Gravity dams: their stability under the influence of water pressure is insured by the material weight. These works can be masonries, for the oldest, or in concrete for the most recent. Generally, they have a triangular section and a very large base in the soil, so they sunken depend less on the banks resistance, which is an advantage in some grounds. This sort of dam is suitable in well large valleys with rocky foundation.(Picture 17).
Picture 17: Dam of Tsakistra From WDD, 2000 z Rockfill dams are essentially a heap of large pebbles. The weight insures the resistance to water pressure, but the heap is not impermeable, so it needs either a concrete wall or a stone of watertight clay to insure watertightness. The soil must be not very compressible. This sort of dam is generally economical in areas with a difficult access (for example in the Cypriots mountains): rocks are removed locally, so there is little transport.
Picture 18: Dam of Dhypotamos From WDD, 2000 z Mixed dams (earth/rockfill; concrete face, rockfill) are dams in embankment. They have various sorts of materials which insure separately the functions of stability and watertightness. They include a stone of watertight clay and rocks or alluvial river deposits on each side.
z Archfill dams are generally made of concrete. Thanks to their curved form, water pressure is moved on the rocky bank of the valley. This sort of dam is found in narrow valleys, so that it leans against the banks. The construction of an arch is certainly the best way to use the capacities of concrete in supporting efforts of compression, and it makes it possible to reduce the volume of materials. Systems in constant improvement The construction of dams was the only solution to cope with the shortage of water. However, systems are perfectible. To reduce the losses by infiltration in the rock during the storage, injections of bentonite are made to make sure it is watertight. But the major problem is environmental. In fact, the presence of dams leads to a drying of the rivers bed and to the degradation of damp areas down stream. Ecological movements (specifically the Green Party) exerted great pressure and the authorities became aware of the problem, so the new dams now have releasing systems to protect the ecosystems down stream. A restitution of 10% is compulsory in theory for each dam. Nevertheless, it is not always respected in dry periods, particularly for the oldest dams.
2.1.1 - Water distribution Construction and description of the network [4] Agricultural development, domestic water supply and many other economic activities are based on the dam construction policy. Considerable work has been undertaken to provide water supply to the different users. Despite its complexity and high cost, this project is vital for Cyprus. The basic objective is to collect and store surplus water from the mountain and to convey it to the main cultivation area in the southeast, which is short of water. It is supposed to enable agricultural development of coastal areas between Limassol and Famagusta, and its domestic and industrial water supply. The Southern Conveyor Project area extends along the southern coast, between the Dhiarizos river in the west and the Kokkinokhoria irrigation area in the east. In view of the large investment and lengthy construction period involved, it was decided to implement the project in two phases, summed up in (Picture 19):
Picture 19: The Southern Conveyor Project From WDD, 2000 •
Phase I started in 1984. It includes: -
the construction of Kouris dam on the Kouris river, with a capacity of 115 million m3, the construction of the 110 km long conveyor and the Akhna terminal reservoir
(Kokkinokhoria area) with a capacity of 6.8 million cubic meters. Water transfert along the conveyor is made by gravity. Three reservoirs along this pipeline are supposed to avoid water hammer, -
a telemetry system to follow the water level in real time,
-
irrigation schemes on a 10,000 hectare area.
This phase was completed in 1994. •
Phase II (1988 – 2002) is made of : -
the Dhiarizos diversion to Kouris dam through a 14.5 km long tunnel,
-
the building of Limassol and Tersephanou water treatment plants and of a 37.5 km long pipeline conveying water from Tersephanou to Nicosia,
-
the water supply scheme to villages west of Limassol,
-
4,159 ha irrigation schemes.
In order to go on improving this project and favour an integrated water dam management, new works have been implemented so as to connect other dams to the Southern Conveyor.
Picture 20:Water network-Southern Conveyor Project From WDD, 2000 Use and maintenance The use of the network raises a problem, because many people are used to irrigating at the end of the day. Today, Cypriot farmers are part-time farmers, and practise another profession. This leads to a burst of consumption which generates drops in pressure in the pipeline. These drops might damage fittings and bother users. To solve this problem, reservoirs are set above each irrigation network, intended avoiding the use of a larger pipeline. From each reservoir goes an irrigation network, divided in sub-units dedicated to provide 4 or 5 ha areas with water ; these areas have a pump with an optimal flow, taking into account the irrigation system (5 l/s).
Picture 21: reservoir above an irrigation network
According to M. Photiou, great attention is paid to leaks along the main pipeline. They could entail serious drawbacks due to the high pressure. The network ends are not free from leaks: it is difficult to supervise the integrity of the network at the parcel scale. Huge efforts are being made to increase the storage and water supply capacities. However, the last years of drought have shown the necessity to combine this construction policy with an efficient water management.
2.2 - Agricultural water management policy 2.1.1 - Scientific basis of water management policies [6] Studies were carried out by the Agricultural Research Institute (ARI) to build up an agronomic basis for water management policies. 2.2.1.1 – Determination of crop hydrous needs The agronomic knowledge of crop hydrous needs is necessary to set up a water distribution policy. In Cyprus, these calculations are made by the Agricultural Research Institute. It uses the international method. The United States Weather Bureau (USWB) provides scientists with the values of basic evaporation (Epan) measured on basins. Afterwards, this data is converted to reference evapotranspiration (ET0) using the equation: ET0 = kp . Epan
kp coefficient takes into account basin characteristics, environment and climate. During the irrigation period (from April to November), its values ranges from 0.75 to 0.85. Reference evapotranspiration stands for the atmosphere evaporative demand and the reference crop evapotranspiration (short grass during active growth phase). Then, a crop coefficient (kc) enables one to work out the potential crop evapotranspiration (ETcrop):
ETcrop = kc . ET0 = kc . kp . Epan The crop coefficient depends on the crop variety and its growth stage. The ARI uses the ETcrop to find out the amount of water to be provided. It suggests providing a percentage of ETcrop, which depends on: -
the crop,
-
the soil moisture, measured with a neutron probe placed in the roots area,
-
the expected yield, which maximizes the marginal water productivity. The result is a combination of good production level and water savings. For instance,
for grapefruits, this amount is approximately 80 % of the ETcrop, as we can see on the
water marginal productivity (kg/m3)
following graph: 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0
w ater quantity (%ETP)
Picture 22 : grapefruit water marginal productivity From ARI, 2003
The effects of a more or less large amount of water are also estimated. Water marginal productivity due to a higher water injection than the suggested amount is very low (from 0.3 to 1.6 kg/m3) : the yield increase does not account for the extra cost of water. As a consequence, there is no use bringing more water than the recommended quantity. 2.2.1.2 - Irrigation The ARI also makes recommendations for each crop, but the management of water does not only rely on the knowledge of crop water requirements. The appropriate irrigation schedule must be considered as well.
● The irrigation frequency depends on: -
Plant growth stage: more frequent and light water application must be applied at the early stages of plant growth, because of the shallow and limited root development.
-
Crop species: crops characterized by deep root systems are irrigated less frequently.
-
Soil: the irrigation depends on the useful water storage of the soil. In soils where it is low (sandy or shallow soils) more frequent water applications are required compared to those where it is high (heavy or deep soils).
-
Irrigation method: with drippers a smaller soil volume is covered with moisture compared to undertree minisprinklers. So, more frequent irrigation must be applied with drippers.
-
Evaporative demand of the atmosphere: in regions where it is high, more frequent water applications are required.
● The farmers have several irrigation methods. They must also choose the most appropriate one. The modern irrigation methods of drippers, minisprinklers and low-capacity sprinklers are widely used in Cyprus for several reasons. First, these systems are subsidized by the government. Other reasons are the high labour cost, the part-time farming and the potential for automation of irrigation with these modern systems. The farmers have to choose the irrigation method according to the crops species: -
Drippers are preferred for the irrigation of narrowly spaced vegetables such as tomatoes, eggplants, peppers, water melons, melons, etc. The increased efficiency with drippers is mainly due to less weed growth in the field, because of limited distribution of water at the surface of the soil.
Picture 23: Irrigated vegetables
-
For closely spaced crops like potatoes, beans, carrots, etc., low capacity sprinklers are preferred, because their installation cost is low compared to that of drippers, while the relative increase in water utilization is limited.
Picture 24: Irrigated potatoes -
For permanent trees plantations, both drippers and minisprinklers can be used. Drippers are more expensive to install but they are characterized by a higher water application, especially during the early stage of growth. Minisprinklers are preferred because they are less expensive and their orifices are not easily blocked.
Picture 25 : Irrigated olive tree
In choosing an irrigation method the following should be additionally considered: -
Available pressure: pressure losses at the "head" of the system and in distribution and irrigation lines must be considered. For example, the recommended operational pressure for drippers is 1 bar, but a greater pressure is required (2 bars) to cover these losses.
-
Irrigation impurity load: more expensive filtration is required to keep clean and protect the tiny dripper openings compared to the larger openings of minisprinklers and low capacity sprinklers.
-
Chemical composition of water: with irrigation water high in Ca, Mg and HCO3 the dripper orifices are more sensitive to blocking. In such cases, the pH of the water should be lowered between 6-6.5 by injecting acid into the irrigation water or by using the irrigation devices with greater openings, such as minisprinklers and low capacity sprinklers
Tables with the results obtained by the ARI are published to inform policy makers. These researches are also available for the farmers who can apply the recommendations or not. The different people we met (farmers, engineers of the ARI) agree that most of the farmers are aware of the problem of water scarcity. Nevertheless, even if most of them use the appropriate irrigation method, they often continue to keep a safety margin of about 10 % of the recommended water supply. 2.2.2 – Several policies to reason the use of water resource The application of short or long term projects is not sufficient enough to resolve water shortage troubles, unless everyone becomes aware of the fact that water is a rare resource. It is necessary for people to manage the resource correctly to do their best to use it properly, and to preserve it. Therefore water management policy is based on the suitable use of all the available water resources. The Cyprus government has set up three big agricultural water management policies: invoicing policy, allowance of water to the farmers and subsidies for the installation of effective devices of irrigation. The invoicing policy consists of a governmental support of the agricultural water price. For example, the cost price of the water coming from dams is € 0.73, but thanks to the state subsidies, farmers only pay 14 cents for it. Reprocessed water from treatment plants also benefits from attractive prices (€ 0.07) to further its use by farmers. However, they still keep a negative vision due to the sanitary problems in the past. So they use it only in case of drastic
limitations: out of 12 million produced each year, 4 million are used. Despite progress in this field, the use of this water is still a problem: its poor physical properties (particles) tend to damage the installations, and its poor chemical quality forbids its use with sprinklers in order to avoid any direct contacts with the plant organs intended for consumption. [7] The total quantity of water intended for irrigation is calculated every year according to the stock conditions: the management is made in real time. The allowance of water is linked to the surface of the farm and the type of culture, according to ARI’s tables. Farmers benefit from subsidized prices as long as they stay below the allocated quantity, then they pay the full price if they exceed this quantity. The government is even considering turning off the water on farmers if they exceed this quantity too much. Moreover, when the water reserves are sufficient, the allocated quantity fits with the optimal amount calculated by ARI (cf. 2.2.1). But in case of drought, the first measure set up by the government is to reduce this quantity to minimal needs permitting the survival of the plants. This system of management and fixing prices, although complex and constraining, seems to us to be well understood and accepted by the users. Finally, the State encourages the farmers to modernize their irrigation systems. To do that, farmers have to make up a file showing their projects. Then, the government looks into this project and if it authenticates it, the farmer can benefit from subsidies between 10 and 25% of the cost of the system and also from loads with low rates. From ARI’s engineers’ point of view, this policy has borne fruit. Presently, more than 95% of the irrigated crops use modern systems which reduce the losses. [8] (Reference Cyprus Report desertification) These measures, though attractive, however, show pernicious effects (waste due to the production of crops which need large quantities of water) that will be dealt with further, and it will not be possible to enforce them when Cyprus conforms to European instructions (cf. part 3). 2.2.3 – How to llocate more water to farmers ? As we have seen it in the first part, agriculture is an important sector in Cyprus economy. But its upholding and its development come up against problems of availability and sharing of the resource. Thus, the government has looked for different solutions so as to allocate more water to farmers. In order to make the cities and the tourist centers less dependant on the rainfall and to satisfy the increasing water demand, the authorities decided to build desalination plants.
Initially the production which was foreseen for the Dhekelia plant was 20.000 m3/ day, and it has had to be doubled due to repeated droughts. Because of its still high price (about twice the price cost of the water coming from dams), this treated water is only used for domestic use for the moment. Yet, it enables the water dams’ availability for agricultural use to increase. Moreover, new technology may reduce the price of this water, which would make its use for agriculturale possible. Besides, the use of 55-60% of the desalinated water for the uses of amenities such as watering golf and parks makes it possible to save water from dams. Two other solutions have been considered but are not in application at present. First of all, the reduction of the evaporation in the reservoirs could decrease the losses by 45% with a low cost ( € 0,14 / m3 of conserved water). But this only concerns little quantities and it isn’t sure that the chemical substances that are used are safe for human health. Therefore, the only possible use of this water might be the same as the use of the retreated one. The use of artificial rainfall has also been studied. This process consists in either sprinkling the spangle clouds with carbonic ice, or making clouds of silver iodide rising up towards them. The carbonic ice, with its very low temperature, brings about a sudden condensation of the steam into a large quantity of crystals. The silver iodide, which crystallizes into form similar to that of ice, can also cause the freezing of droplets in superfusion inside the cloud. A sowing of these products into the upper part of the clouds can cause rain. Obtaining artificial rainfall was tried during the 70’s, with in significant results. But it has brought about new interest because of the results in Israel. [9, 10] The implemented means to reconcile water shortage and agricultural development are effective but only short-range means. In the field, we have been able to bring to the fore some aspects which should be more closely analysed. So, from a sustainable agriculture view, some water management methods and some economic considerations appear to be conflicting.
3 – Management of water on the island : limits and prospects All the means, which are used to conciliate water shortage and agricultural development, are efficient but only on a short-term period. When meeting people, we highlighted some interesting points. Indeed, some water management practices and economical considerations appeared to be in contradiction to a sustainable way of practicing agriculture, and sometimes absurd. We will see how Cyprus entry in the European Union will soon require us to rethink the water management policy.
3.1 – Resource management : structural limits and contradictions 3.1.1 – Coordination and cooperation problems between competent organisms Water management is the main activity of numerous Cypriot organisations. Despite this common good-will, there are limits to the cooperation between third parties and to the coordination of their actions. Thus, the Agricultural Research Institute does not give farmers direct advice. The application of its research is indeed realised by a special department of the ministry of agriculture. This department is also in charge of the management of subsidies to farmers. This practice does not permit a good exchange of information in both directions. To have more detailed information, farmers have to ask for it. And on the other hand, the feedback of information toward ARI’s researchers is too rare. This is an obstacle to the evolution of research and agricultural practices. WDD communication policy toward farmers and the public does not seem to be detailed. For instance, within the framework of the Southern Conveyor Project, when Arminou dam (Picture 14) was built, farmers whose farm was downstream from the dam were not informed and given explanations concerning what was at stake with such a project. The “surplus” of water in this region is being conveyed to eastern areas to irrigate crops. Finally, during the last decades, all the efforts were concentrated on building dams instead of managing them. As the slogan says « Not a drop of water to the sea », 106 dams have been built for 60 years with a total storage capacity of 325 MCM [1]. Today, each river of the island is dammed. These choices enabled them to solve, partially, the problems of water
shortage. However, they lead to an unbalanced Water Development Department. For years, the WDD employed architects and project manager without thinking of the future, when it would be necessary to manage these civil engineering structures. Consequently, numerous dams where built in partnership with, mainly, foreign companies. The priority was to build and, perhaps, people had not been trained to think these systems on their whole. Nowadays, as building projects are ending, the tendency is reversing. Managers are now recruited and the management service is becoming developed itself to coordinate nation wide actions. The Southern Conveyor Project appears to be a model of global vision of the water resource management in the national policy framework, even if the outdated local distribution network affects the pertinence of the project. The conception of the project implies that the main pipeline must not leak. Losses would lead to pressure falls and great damage on the main pipeline. The CCF estimates though that 30% of the water, which is conveyed to towns, is lost when locally distributed. Repairing the network could enable a better management of the resource but domestic consumption only represents 20% of the total consumption. Consequently, the economy, which could be realised, would be relatively negligible. 3.1.2 – A public awareness in a subdued style The different awareness campaigns made people more sensitive to problems related to water shortage. The governmental campaign, realised by the WDD, is reinforced by those NGO and environmentalist associations. The CCF currently has an important role in these initiatives. Every type of media is used: television, radio, written press…Moreover, children are specifically targeted with school activities. Thus, eco-friendly actions have real consequences in daily life. For instance, cars are never washed. The water, used to wash the dishes or the washing, is used to water the garden.
Figure 26 : Poster for public awareness, realised by WDD From [2] However, a certain slackening has been noticed. This is probably caused by the good precipitation of the last three years! Moreover, the government has yield to the pressure of tourism and is not necessarily the right example to follow. We noticed that central reservation on highway, parks and round-abouts in town were watered right in the middle of the day.
3.1.3 – Farmers : between awareness and sensibility Other campaigns specifically targeted farmers, which are very aware of the importance of good water management. For instance, they are told to cultivate varieties which consume less water. As they are the first concerned, they are ready to make some concessions, but not all of them. According to Mr Demetriou from the WDD, mentalities are slowly evolving. Consequently, the government has to adopt a progressive approach. Moreover, some practises are hard to make change and farmers still have prejudices. Indeed, in spite of its lower price, the use of recycled water is not well accepted. Farmers are concerned about the quality and the image of their products. Recycling processes do not permit one to remove all the particles in suspension. Consequently, it deteriorates the filters of irrigation systems more quickly and creates an additional cost. We previously (cf. partie 2) saw that farmers have to respect a quota on consumed quantity of water, which is defined by the WDD. However, they often have a well on their farm, so that they can pump underground water without being inspected. This common practise is decreasing but has still harmful effects on aquifers (cf. paragraph 3). The estimation of real consumed amounts of water is consequently unpredictable. Moreover, farmers do not necessarily follow the ARI’s advice and often water their crops more than they need to in order to increase their profits and, by this way, their standard of living. Finally, the water distribution system has limits. Farmers are consuming water at the same periods of the day (in the morning and at the end of the day), so that the pressure is too low and the system cannot deliver enough water. In this case, it is possible to notice absurd actions like field irrigation by aspersion at noon. Even if there are disappointments, farmers are supplied enough , they just have, for instance, to respect turns of water.
3.2 - Agriculture and tourism : two hard-to-conciliate economical activities 3.2.1 - Economy and tradition : two reconciling notions Irrigation associated to a favourable period of sunshine enable farmers to have a good level of production and Cyprus to maintain the amount of exported goods. As years went by, new productions became cultivated besides traditional ones (olive trees, vines…). These productions are less wise to cultivate because of their weakness for water. For instance, the ARI advises them to irrigate an olive tree with 430 mm/year and three times more for a
banana tree. This evolution is a part of an approach common to number of countries: developing agriculture with high added value products and consequently more economically profitable ones. Therefore, some people we met like MM. Metochis and Eliades from the ARI, think that it is important to continue growing these crops on the island of Cyprus. However, it is reasonable to consider that the cost of irrigation in the final price of these products make them less competitive on externals markets and consequently, this economic sustainability is not bearable in medium term. The notion of durability is still thought economically than ecologically. However, we noticed an evolution of points of view besides researchers: younger researchers think that ecology is more important than economy. In a will of agriculture and export development, the ARI do researches on new crops. We visited a greenhouse where raspberries were cultivated at counter season on an artificial ground to be sold on the European market. This culture, though still experimental, has been presented to us as an opportunity for the Cypriot economy. However, means, which would be used to realise such a crop, seem to be excessive in a sustainable framework, even if we only consider economic sustainability. Initial investment seems indeed excessive compared to the means, which farmers have and the return they could be expecting. On the contrary, sometimes, past actions are questioned. In particular areas, French grape varieties replaced traditional ones. Nowadays, the tendency is progressively reversing. Planting French grape varieties, producers thought they would improve the quality of their wine and therefore its value. This wine could have been sold on new markets. But, these grape varieties need to be irrigated, which implies a lower return. The coming back to traditional grape varieties was made in association with a thought on how to improve quality with new methods of culture. Grapes were spoiling while being carried to wineries. In the past, wineries were located in the valleys. They have been moved to the vineyards. Producers hope that the original aspect of their production will make them more valuable on the European market. Dr Artemis Yiordamli from the CCF thinks this is exactly an example of conciliation between sustainability of agriculture and economic profitability.
3.2.2 - Tourism : one of the island’s main dilemma Considering the water resource, the development of tourism raises issues. This activity is the first source of income on the island but consumed volumes of water by tourists are increasing endlessly. Consequently, available quantities for agriculture are decreasing, all the more so as government has to give in to pressure and allow, for instance, park watering. While this domestic consumption is generally tolerated by Cypriots, the large surplus of water needed by new activities is facing an unanimous refusal. We then noticed that, under the pressure of the Green Party and environmentalist associations, projects of golf course building were cancelled. We were told that some property developers were even ready to build a private desalination plant to provide enough water to their tourist complex.
Picture 27 : Larnaca’s parks From [3]
Consequently the Cypriot government has to face up to a major issue: maintaining a necessarily needed tourist activity and at the same time keeping enough water to use it in agriculture.
3.3 – Ecological impacts of past and actual water management policies 3.3.1 - Salinisation of aquifer During decades, overpumping in the aquifer caused gradual salinisation due to the rising of sea water. Indeed, due to pumping, aquifer level had decreased, which caused sea water intrusion. Then as shown on fig. 25, there is a salinity gradient (measured with conductivity) in the ground water. WDD elaborates models to visualise the condition of the main ground waters in Cyprus. The fig. 26 gives an example of obtained results for Kiti peninsula. We can see the aquifer level and the sea water intrusions. Moreover, sea water intrusions are responsible for progressive salinisation of the soils. Indeed, farmers use water with considerable salinity for irrigating, which is harmful both to crops and soils. That is why WDD had forbidden to pump near the sea to protect ground water and soils and then to preserve framers’ tool. To get rid of saline water, the WDD has tried to drop a part of dam water. For example, Kokkinochoria aquifer’s level is 14 meters below sea level, due to overpumping. To fill in the deficit, 1,010 MCM should be brought but to chase out saline water of the aquifer, it would be necessary to double this volume. Regarding the water situation on the island, it will certainly not be realised before 2012. 3.3.2 - Dams As said in the second part of this report, the construction of dams causes flood upstream and draining downstream. These areas are especially sensitive: the lack of water causes changing in ecosystems with extinction of several fish and batracian species. Law, which imposes WDD to drop 10 % of total dam volume, allows the preservation of the wetlands downstream, in addition to good aquifer management. 3.3.3 – Desalinisation plants There are also some problems with desalinisation plants. Due to their process, they have to throw back into the sea half of pumped water with the entire amount of salt. That causes an increase of the salinity in an area from 100 to 200 meters around this point (11 m of depth, 600 m from coasts). This local changing modifies sea ecosystems. Moreover, the water
produced in these plants, with its chemical quality, prematurely corrodes tubes and is restricted to the human consumption. Indeed, irrigating with this water causes destructuration in soil colloid, and then, deterioration of the productive potential of the land and erosion. Furthermore, this water needs to be mineralised to be correctly assimilatable by crops. On the other hand, according to the CCF, desalinisation plants are not a mean of sustainable water management on the island. Indeed, they allow creation of new resource instead of taking place in a management will of the one which still exists. Moreover, due to the great power consumption (about 5 kWh per CM) even for the latest technologies, the water produced in these plants is 200 % as expensive as the water mobilised with dams. It can be interesting to compare the CCF’s point of view and the one of a plants manager. Mr Psaltis, chemist at Dhekelia desalinisation plant thinks that the ecological impact of desalinisation is fair. He considers his plant as a proper one. According to him, the ecologist’s objection (“use water more efficiently, to conserve and to recycle it”) can’t be accepted I, view of the population’s demand. As it is impossible to decrease consumption, it is necessary to produce new volumes of fresh water. For most of the people we met, the durability concept is more economic profitability of the existing farms than ecological conservation of the tool. However, the environmental consequences of water management policies are more and more taken into account. Cyprus conception of sustainable agricultural development is more and more similar to the EU’s one.
3.4 – Future and entrance in European Union 3.4.1 Mediterranean and European plans The first and the second Water Conferences about water (Alger 1990, Rome 1992) have shown the social, cultural and economic importance of water in Mediterranean countries. The management of this scarce resource for a sustainable development has to be supported by cooperation of all concerned countries [4]. That is why Cyprus has taken part for a long time in Mediterranean programs for a sustainable management of water, as those proposed by EUROMED. Indeed, the Republic of Cyprus is a member of the EMWIS. This network makes it possible to share knowledge between countries and to homogenise management techniques. The goal of this cooperation between all of Mediterranean countries are: − To take stock and take into account present and future demands − To define ways to reinforce local cooperation
− To give propositions to rationalise planning and management of water resources − To contribute to create new water resources. In this partnership, several projects on water management, agriculture and sustainable development have been set up in Cyprus. They have been explained in the first part. Others partnerships have also been organised in the past several years. The Blue Plan, for example, aims to install in Mediterranean area a sustainable socio-economic development without damaging the environment. The activity program is formed by a global mission of observation, assessment and exploration of relationships between population, environment and development, and also studies, synthesis of priority subjects for all the Mediterranean countries. The main Convention of this plan (Barcelona, 1975) created an Action Plan for the Mediterranean and, in 1995, a Mediterranean Commission for Sustain Development was born. Cyprus is among the members of this Commission and joins the Blue Plan. Thus, several actions on sustainable water management were carried out: − Diagnosis of the situation and the possible evolutions − Adoption of recommendations by members in 1997, Tunis − Presentation of the “Mediterranean view on water, population and environment in the 21st Century” during the world forum about water in La Haye (2000) [7]. These different partnerships show that Cyprus has committed itself very early to common solutions of water management. As a member of several partnerships with Mediterranean and / or European countries, it has anticipated the necessary efforts for water management due to its entrance in EU. As long as these partnerships exist, many actions will be undertaken to preserve water resource and to have a sustainable development of the country. Some partnerships exist on a more global scale, as for example the Global Water Partnership, whose actions are coordinated on a world scale. 3.3.2. Water: The main stake for Cypriot business We must mention that Cyprus had had, for many years, the possibility to export to the European market without customs duties. That is why it plays an important part in European importations. For example, Cypriot Republic is the third potato-importing country (after Israel and Egypt) with 22% of the European market shares. Therefore, the island’s adhesion will not permit the country, as it seems, to accede to new markets. Only the new members are
potential additional outlets, especially Hungary and Poland says M. Frixos Tsakkistos, from Groexport ldt. Typical productions of the island (citrus for example) put Cyprus in direct competition with countries like Spain or Greece, yet set up on the European market. At all levels, a competition exists among all these countries, particularly for part of the cost of water in the final cost of the product. At the moment, water represents 5% of the production cost of citrus, but this is relative. As a matter of fact, from 2015, European law will forbid water subsidising. Farmers will have to pay the full cost of water, but they hope they will have other indirect subsidies because they can’t afford it. These further expenses seem to be too difficult to deal with, in the current situation. From then on, a reasoned management of available water appears to be the main stake for competitiveness of Cypriot agricultural production. Insofar as farmers will have to pay the water entirely we can wonder what their behaviour will be. In order to limit their outlaws, they could want to pump more in the aquifers, even if it may cause many salination problems. However, most of them consider that the price of water will be so high that they will not waste it. They intend to manage as well as they can this rare (and expensive!) commodity.
3.3.3. The Water Framework Directive The admission to the European Union will cause many changes for the country, particularly for water management: Cyprus will have to apply the Water Framework Directive 2000/60/EC (WFD, cf.1). This instruction seems to be unsuitable for the island. Bringing Cyprus into compliance for water management before 2015 will be hard, so the country will have to adapt its legislation and its mind slowly. First of all, Cyprus is specific because it is an island. Furthermore, all the rivers of the country run only a part of the year. The authorities consider Cyprus as one only drainage basin, because of its size. As a matter of fact, European countries want to carry out integrated management of water with drainage basin as an action unit. But the smallness of the island implies that Cypriots made that choice, even if it is against the hydrological definition.
On February 2004, Cypriot Parliament ratified the reform project that wanted to coordinate national actions and European texts. That proposal is now facing many problems
such as the inexistence of a Ministry of Environment independent from the one of Agriculture. This shows the disorganisation of the whole network. The effectiveness for water management is determined, among other things, by the computerisation of the data collected. That is why the WDD, has tried to set up a global method for geo-referencing. However, the Department needs suitable employees, and, for this project, some data processing specialists are lacking. Furthermore, the cost of the system is high, and that is a hindrance to its achievement. Moreover, Cyprus was, until now, more concerned by a problem of quantity of water than by one of quality. This does not fit with the prerogatives of WFD. All the efforts made during the last decades were about these quantity aspects, the quality was only secondary. Today, the obligation to match to the European Directive has it that this quantity/quality ratio is changing. For example, pigsty effluents will now be put and treated together. Nowadays, the dispersion and the size of those farms imply that there are not very many problems with quality of water. Concerning the crops, it seems that the low price of pesticides and fertilisers encourage farmers to use it largely. Phenomena of pollution are most visible, even if they are less great than those of occidental countries. Cypriot awareness about this is growing little by little, reinforced by the fact that the WFD is to be applied soon. One of the WDD current projects is to set up a database on quality of the rivers.
To conclude, the European adhesion process has made possible a reorganisation of the management of water current policies. Furthermore, the players take the WFD as an opportunity for Cyprus to make its water management practices move faster, and also approach the notion of sustainability, as in Europe. However, it risks to be difficult to apply, as no adaptation is envisaged for countries like Malta or Cyprus. It also seems that the players of water management do not anticipate their actions enough. As a matter of fact, the simulations made by the WDD show that new problems of water shortage will occur in the future. However, the current state of the resource is satisfactory and they are getting by on what they’ve already got, and it seems that they are waiting to have their backs to the wall…
CONCLUSION The Republic of Cyprus faces several problems due to the shortage of water : its resources are limited but above all, they are badly distributed among time and space. Maintaining and developing agriculture on the island are subject to the availability of water resources. Also, government has had to elaborate policies of water management according to three main lines: -
big construction projects
-
awareness of the users
-
research development
However, in spite of major efforts made for forty years, the Cypriot agriculture is still handicapped by the lack of water. Indeed, our observations in Cyprus and the talkswe had with various interlocutors show us the whole problem that can not be restricted to the agricultural trade. The lack of communication between several actors or the competition between irrigating agriculture and tourism which is the first economic activity of the country, represents main hindrances to a sustainable management of water resources. Nevertheless, an acceleration of the actions can be observed, due to the will of good integration in the European Union. The adhesion process, even if it was the mainspring of evolution, showed huge differences between the EU’s point of view and that of Cyprus, especially for agriculture. Conciliation between shortage of water and sustainable agriculture development needs to define the sustainable concept, which is not thought of in the by same way. Indeed, if Cypriot government actions aim to develop an agriculture which is economically viable with a main place in the society, they did not pay attention, until recently, the environmental aspects. However, attitudes of the young are evolving and the three aspects tend to have the same importance. Thus, the Cypriot Republic constitute a model of evolving, regarding water problem: it first managed its resource volume and it becoming interested now in its perpetuity, on both the quantity and quality aspects. It can be considered as an example for the other Mediterranean countries: its mistakes and their consequences in the past are experiences that must not be made again. Nevertheless, the blind irrigation with overpumping in aquifers, which still exists today, shows the stake involved in developing efficient information networks on a world scale.
REFERENCES
ARTICLES [1] Bathendier S., Chypre, Guides Bleus Evasion, Editions Hachette, 2000 [2] Clamou B., The question of water in Cyprus, Economic Department of Nicosia, May 2002 [3] Eliades G., Efficient Management of Irrigation Water in Cyprus, 2003 [4] Metochis C., Crop Water Requirements and Scheduling of Irrigation [5] Socratous G., Management of Water in Cyprus, 2001 [6] Vard T., Fruits et légumes : production et échanges internationaux, p.61, January 2003, on http://www.europa.eu.int/comm/agriculture/markets/fruitveg/publi/index_fr.htm BROCHURES [7] WDD, Dams of Cyprus, PIO, 2000 [8] WDD, Historical review , PIO, 2003 [9] WDD, Southern Conveyor Project, PIO, 2000 [10] WDD, Water Development in Cyprus, PIO, 2000 [11] WDD – FAO, CD Re-assessment of the water resources and demand of the island of Cyprus, September 2002 ON INTERNET [12] http://univ-nancy2.fr/NEO_HELLENIQUE/KyAgri.htm, 07/03/04 [13] http://www.ac-grenoble.fr/risqmaj/realisations/73/beaufort/typesde.htm [14] http://www.fao.org, 2004 [15] http://www.fao.org/es/ESC/fr/20953/20990/highlight_28187fr.html, September 2003 [16] http://www.gwpmed.org/, May 2004 [17] http://www.industrie.gouv.fr/energie/hydro/types.htm 14/01/00 [18] http://www.oieau.fr/index.html, 24/05/04 [19] http://www.perso.wanadoo.fr/bernard.corby/rando/chypre.html, 07/06/02 [20] http://www.pio.gov.cy/wdd/eng/scientific_articles/ archieve2001/article01.htm, Water Policy Issues in Cyprus [21] http://www.planbleu.org/, 13/05/04 [22] http://www.quid.fr, 2004 [23] http://www.StudentsOfTheWorld.info, 07/03/04 [24] http://www.unccd.int/cop/reports/northmed/national/2002/cyprus-eng.pdf, Cyprus report for combating desertification, 24/10/03 ENCYCLOPEDIA [25] Hachette Multimédia 2001
THANKS The group wants to thank warmly the whole met people in Cyprus, who had agreed to answer our questions for this study. Thus, we want especially to thank, by order of meeting : -
MM. Christos METOCHIS, George ELIADES, Damienos NEOCLEOUS et Meneleos STEVRINIDES, Agricultural Research Institute,
-
Mr Demetris PSILOGENIS, Cyprus Green Party,
-
Mr Nicos X TSOURTIS, senior water engineer of Water Development Department,
-
Mr Charles DEMETRIOU, Water Development Department,
-
Mr George PSALTIS, chemist, Dhekelia desalinisation plant (Cardamoni Desalination Plant),
-
Mr Andreas DEMETROPOULOS, marine biologist and oceanographer, founder member of the Cyprus Wildlife Society,
-
Mrs Artemis YIORDAMLI and her colleagues of the Cyprus Conservation Foundation,
-
Mr Photos PHOTIOU and the employees of the Kouris dam, Water Development Department,
-
Mr Frixos TSAKKISTOS, Groexport ltd, growing and exportation of citrus,
-
Mrs Martin, chemist, Cyprus Green Party. We thank also our teachers Mrs Zahra Thomas and Mr Youssef Fouad for their help in
this project.
We want also to thank the following French companies for their financial support: -
Boyer Stores
-
CELMAR
-
Cogolin Pièces Auto
-
Conseil général d'Ile-et-Vilaine
-
Mr and Mrs Cottaz
-
ENSAR
-
SARL Chesneau
-
SARL Courty
-
SARL Patissier
-
Société Générale
-
SOCREDIS
-
SOMBRAC
APPENDIX 1 : Source : WDD, 2003
APPENDIX 2 Source : WDD, 2000
n°
Name
Building
type of river
year LARGE DAMS 1953 Xeros (Morphou) 1956 Kryos (Kouris) 1956 Tapakhna (Kouris) 1957 Katouris 1958 Kouris Setrakhos (Marathasa) 1962 1962 Kaloyiros (Pedhieos) 1962 Almyros (Pedhieos) 1962 Serrakhis 1963 Jinnar (Pedhieos) 1964 Magounda 1964 Limnatis 1964 Trimithos 1964 Symea (Pedhieos) 1964 Potamos 1964 Ovgos 1965 Garyllis 1965 Xeros 1966 Mavrokolymbos Setrakhos (Marathasa) 1966 1966 Livadhi 1968 Yermasoyia Syrkatis (Pendaskinos) 1973 1973 Akaki (Serrakhis) 1973 Serrakhis 1975 Yermasoyia 1981 Vasilikos 1982 Xeros Potamos 1982 Lagoudhera (Elea) 1985 Vasilikos 1985 Pendaskinos
1 2 3 4 5
Kafizes Perapedhi Kandou Pyrgos Trimiklini
6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19
Lefka Athalassa Geunyeli Morphou Kanli Keuy Argaka Agros Kiti (Trimithos) Mia Milea Liopetri Ovgos Polemidhia Ayia Marina Mavrokolymbos
20 21 22
Kalopanayiotis Pomos Yermasoyia
23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31
Lefkara Palekhori - kambi Masari Arakapas Ayii Vavatsinias Asprokremmos Xyliatos Kalavasos Dhypotamos
32 33 34 35
Evretou Akhna Kouris Vizakia
1986 1987 1988 1994
Stavros tis Psokas Off-stream Kouris Off-stream
36 37 38 39
Arminou Tsakistra Tamasos Kannaviou (being built)
1998 2000 2002 2004
dam
capacity use (x103 m3) domestical irrigation recharge surface (ha
gravity gravity gravity gravity gravity
113 55 34 285 340
x x x x x
103 15 75 167 87
gravity earthfill earthfill earthfill earthfill rockfill earthfill earthfill earthfill earthfill earthfill earthfill rockfill earthfill
368 791 1.045 1.879 1.113 990 99 1.614 355 340 845 3.400 298 2.180
x x x x x x x x x
174 42 114 903 536 321 40 664 174 853 1.938 201 449
earthfill rockfill earthfill Earthfill/ rockfill gravity earthfill gravity voûte earthfill rockfill rockfill rockfill
363 860 13.500
x x x
58 382 1.924
x x
89 156 24 11 5.088 308 765 320
13.850 620 2.273 129 53 53.375 1.430 17.100 15.500 24.000 6.800 115.000 1.690
Dhiarizos Limnitis Pedhieos Ezousas
rockfill earthfill earthfill earthfill Earthfill/ rockfill gravity both rockfill
Koutsos (Yialias) Tremithos Akaki (Serrakhis) Kambos
gravity gravity gravity gravity
32 18 82 23
4.300 100 2.800 18.000
x x x x
x
x
x x
x
x
x x x x x x x
x x
x
3.300 350 1.600 + 2.300 44
x x x x
34 51 181 174
x x x x
x x x x
x
SMALL DAMS 1 2 3 4
Lythrodhonda (Lower) Lymbia Kalokhorio (Klirou) Galini
1945 1945 1947 1947
5 6 7 8 9 10
Akrounda Petra (lower) Petra (upper) Lythrodhonda (upper) Syngrasis Lymbia (new)
1947 1948 1951
Yermasoyia Atsas Atsas
gravity gravity gravity
23 32 23
x x x
1952 1968 1977
Koutsos (Yialias) Merikeros Tremithos
gravity earthfill gravity
32 1.115 220
x x x
earthfill earthfill earthfill earthfill earthfill earthfill earthfill earthfill earthfill earthfill earthfill earthfill earthfill earthfill earthfill earthfill earthfill earthfill earthfill earthfill earthfill earthfill earthfill earthfill earthfill earthfill earthfill earthfill earthfill earthfill earthfill gravity
4.545 455 100 90 45 45 165 115 55 50 4.545 1.365 1.365 115 23 195 86 82 68 45 32 90 77 68 100 45 34 140 130 50 90 90
earthfill earthfill earthfill earthfill earthfill earthfill earthfill earthfill earthfill earthfill earthfill earthfill earthfill earthfill earthfill earthfill
122 50 123 92 70 59 55 132 104 65 192 127 273 71 62 59
11 Kouklia 1900 12 Ayios Loucas 1955 13 Gypsos 1955 14 Ayios Yeoryios 1962 15 Sotira 1962 16 Panayia/Famagusta 1962 17 Famagusta 1963 18 Paralimni 1963 19 Ayia Napa 1963 20 Famagusta 1963 21 Ayios Loucas Lake 1964 22 Ayios Nikolaos 1964 23 Paralimni Lake 1964 24 Phrenaros 1964 25 Dherinia 1964 26 Makrasyka 1966 27 Xylophaghou 1966 28 Kondea 1966 29 Avgorou 1966 30 Phrenaros 1966 31 Sotira 1966 32 Akhna Mesania 1967 33 Lysi 1967 34 Ayios Yeoryios 1967 35 Ormidhia 1968 36 Akanthou 1968 37 Ayios Epiktitos 1968 38 Vrysoulles 1969 39 Morphou 1969 40 Xylotymbou 1969 41 Protopapas 1970 42 Aradhippou 1987 OFF-STREAM RESERVOIRS 1 Prodhromos 1962 Off-stream 2 Kyperounda n°1 1974 Off-stream 3 Pelendria 1980 Off-stream 4 Ephtagonia n°1 1980 Off-stream 5 Khandria 1980 Off-stream 6 Melini n°1 1980 Off-stream 7 Ayii Vasatsinias n°1 1980 Off-stream 8 Akapnou-Ephtagonia 1981 Off-stream 9 Kato Mylos 1981 Off-stream 10 Ephtagonia n°3 1981 Off-stream 11 Arakapas n°1 1982 Off-stream 12 Ephtagonia n°2 1982 Off-stream 13 Kyperounda n°2 1983 Off-stream 14 Lagoudhera 1983 Off-stream 15 Ora 1983 Off-stream 16 Agridhia 1983 Off-stream
x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x
53 362 260 x
34 ? 51
x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x
23 8 50 19 13 12 11 22 23 12 35 20 60 16 15 10
17 Khirokitia 18 Dhierona 19 Arakapas n°2 20 Pharmakas n°2 21 Ayii Vasatsinias n°2 22 Pharmakas n°1 23 Esso Galata 24 Odou n°1 25 Odou n°2 26 Melini n°2
1984 1984 1984 1984 1984 1984 1985 1996 1996 1996
Off-stream Off-stream Off-stream Off-stream Off-stream Off-stream Off-stream Off-stream Off-stream Off-stream
earthfill earthfill earthfill earthfill earthfill earthfill earthfill earthfill earthfill earthfill
205 159 120 61 43 21 35 32 53 97
x x x x x x x x x x
39 34 23 10 7 5 17 12 13 14
